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Αττική διάλεκτος: Διαφορά μεταξύ των αναθεωρήσεων

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[[Image:Greek dialects.png|thumb|305px|Διανομή των ελληνικών διαλέκτων, το [[400]] π.χ. περίπου η αττική διάλεκτος ομιλούταν στην χερσαία Ελλάδα στην μοβ περιοχή (στα αριστερά).]]
 
Η '''αττική διάλεκτος''' ήταν η διάλεκτος γοήτρου των αρχαίων ελληνικών που μιλήθηκαν στην Αττική, και ποιο συγκεκριμένα στην Αθήνα. Από τις αρχαίες διαλέκτους, είναι η πιο παρόμοια με τα μετέπειτα ελληνικά και είναι η τυποποιημένη μορφή της γλώσσας που μελετάται στις σειρές μαθημάτων των "αρχαίων ελληνικών".▼
 
▲Η αττική διάλεκτος ήταν η διάλεκτος γοήτρου των αρχαίων ελληνικών που μιλήθηκαν στην Αττική, και ποιο συγκεκριμένα στην Αθήνα. Από τις αρχαίες διαλέκτους, είναι η πιο παρόμοια με τα μετέπειτα ελληνικά και είναι η τυποποιημένη μορφή της γλώσσας που μελετάται στις σειρές μαθημάτων των "αρχαίων ελληνικών".
 
==Provenience and range==
[[Greek language|Greek]] is an independent branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language classification, a family that includes [[English language|English]]. In historical times, it already existed in several dialects (see article on [[Greek dialects]]), one of which was Attic.
 
The earliest written records in Greek date to the 16th to 11th centuries BCE and exist in an archaic writing system, [[Linear B]], belonging to the [[Mycenaean]] Greeks. The distinction between Eastern and Western Greek, it is logical to suppose, had arisen by [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] times or before. [[Mycenaean Greek]] represents an early form of Eastern Greek, a main branching to which Attic also belongs. Because of the gap in the written record between the disappearance around 1200 BCE of Linear B and the earliest inscriptions in the later [[Greek alphabet]] around 750 BCE, <ref>See the summary by Susan Shelmerdine, ''[http://www.uncg.edu/cla/courses/shelmerd/grkalpha.htm Greek Alphabet]'', the section in the Indo-European Database on the ''[http://indoeuro.bizland.com/project/script/greek.html Greek Alphabet]'' and the [http://www.ancientscripts.com/alphabet.html ancientscripts.com site] </ref> the further development of dialects remains opaque. Later Greek literature spoke of three main dialect divisions: [[Aeolic Greek|Aeolic]], [[Doric Greek|Doric]] and [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]]. Attic was part of the Ionic dialect group. "[[Old Attic]]" is a term used for the dialect of [[Thucydides]] (460-400 BCE) and the dramatists of Athens' remarkable 5th century; "[[New Attic]]" is used for the language of later writers. <ref> from Goodwin and Gulick's classic text "Greek Grammar" (1930) </ref>
 
Attic Greek persisted until the 4th century BCE, when it is replaced by its similar but more universal offspring, [[koine]], or "the Common Dialect" (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος). The cultural dominance of the Athenian Empire and the later adoption of Attic Greek by king [[Philip II of Macedon]] (382-336 BCE), father of the conqueror [[Alexander the Great]], were the two keys that ensured the eventual victory of Attic over other Greek dialects and the spread of its descendant, ''koine'' Greek, throughout Alexander's Hellenic empire. The rise of ''koine'' is conventionally marked by the accession in 285 BCE of (Greek-speaking) [[Ptolemy II]], who ruled from [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]] and launched the "Alexandrian period", when the city of Alexandria and its expatriate Greek-medium scholars flourished. <ref> Goodwin and Gulick in "Greek Grammar" </ref>
 
In its day, the original range of the spoken Attic dialect included [[Attica]], [[Euboea]], some of the central [[Cyclades]] islands, and northern Aegean coastal areas of [[Thrace]] (i.e. [[Chalcidice]] or, in Greek, Χαλκιδική). The closely related dialect called "Ionian" was spoken along the western and northwestern coasts of [[Asia Minor]] (modern [[Turkey]]) on the east side of the [[Aegean Sea]]. Eventually, literary Attic (and the classic texts written in it) came to be widely studied far beyond its original homeland, first in the Classical civilizations of the Mediterranean ([[Ancient Rome]] and the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic world]]), and later in the [[Muslim world]], Europe, and wherever European civilization spread to other parts of the world.
 
==Λογοτεχνία στην Αττική Διάλεκτο==
Η πιο πρόωρη καταγραμμένη ελληνική λογοτεχνία, που απέδωσε στον Όμηρο και χρονολογημένο στους 7ους ή 8ους αιώνες π.χ., δεν γράφτηκε στην αττική διάλεκτο, αλλά σε "παλαιό ιονικό". Η Αθήνα και η διάλεκτος της παρέμειναν σχετικά σκοτεινές έως ότου οδήγησαν οι συνταγματικές αλλαγές της στη δημοκρατία το 594 π.χ., την έναρξη της κλασσικής περιόδου και την άνοδο της αθηναϊκής επιρροής.
 
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Οι πρώτες εκτενείς εργασίες της λογοτεχνίας σε αττικό επίπεδο είναι τα παιχνίδια των δραματουργών Αισχύλου, Σοφοκλή, Ευριπίδη, Αριστοφάνη και Menander τον 5ο αιώνα π.χ. Οι εργασίες του Αθηναίου φιλοσόφου Πλάτωνα χρονολογούνται επίσης σε εκείνο τον αξιοπρόσεκτο αιώνα της λογοτεχνίας. Οι στρατιωτικοί άθλοι των Αθηναίων οδήγησαν μερικούς που διάβασαν παγκοσμίως να θαυμάσουν την ιστορία της γλώσσας αυτής, που έκαναν οι: εργασίες του Θουκυδίδη και Ξενοφών. Ελαφρώς λιγότερο είναι γνωστά επειδή είναι πιο τεχνικά και νομικά τα orations από το αντίφωνο, το Δημοσθένης, Λυσίας, Ισοκράτης και πολλοί άλλοι.
 
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Ο αττικιστής Έλληνας φιλόσοφος Αριστοτέλης (384-322 π.χ.), ο οποίος ήταν σύμβουλος του Πλάτωνας, χρονολογείτε από την περίοδο στην οποία η κλασσική αττική εξελίσσεται στην "κοινή" Ελληνική. Οι σπουδαστές που μαθαίνουν τα αρχαία ελληνικά σήμερα συνήθως αρχίζουν με την αττική διάλεκτο, προχωρώντας, ανάλογα με το ενδιαφέρον τους, στην κοινή Ελληνική της νέας διαθήκης και άλλων πρόωρων χριστιανικών γραφών, ή τα ομηρικά ελληνικά για να διαβάσουν και άλλα αρχαία ελληνικά αριστουργήματα που γράφονται σε άλλες διαλέκτους.
 
==Αττικό Αλφάβητο==
[[Image:AGMA Ostrakon Thémistocle 3.jpg|thumb|left|A ballot voting for Themistocles son of Neocles under the Athenian Democracy. Note the last two letters of Themistocles are written [[boustrophedon]] and E is used for both long and short e; that is, this is the epichoric alphabet.]]
 
The classic Attic Alphabet is made up of the familiar 24 (capital) Greek letters: Α, Β, Γ, Δ, Ε, Ζ, Η, Θ, Ι, Κ, Λ, Μ, Ν, Ξ, Ο, Π, Ρ, Σ, Τ, Υ, Φ, Χ, Ψ, Ω.
 
It has seven vowels: Α, Ε, Η (long ''e''), Ι, Ο, Υ, Ω (long ''o''). The rest are consonants.
 
The first form of written Greek was not the [[Greek Alphabet]] as it later became known, but the [[syllabary]] known as [[Linear B]], in which one character stood for both a consonant and vowel together.
 
The first use of what became the classic [[Greek alphabet]] remains unknown. By the time it was attested for in general use in the 8th century BCE<ref>The Encyclopedia Britannica mentions the [[Dipylon inscription|Dipylon vase]] from Athens as the first, giving a date of 725</ref> it was already divided into a western and eastern variety, from which the Etruscan/Latin alphabets and the later Greek alphabet came respectively. What is today referred to as the Greek alphabet was originally the [[Phoenician alphabet]] borrowed to spell Greek words, with some originally [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] consonantal letters -- such as ''aleph'' <ref> Strictly speaking, Semitic ''aleph'' is not a "consonant" but only a "chair" for any unrepresented vowel. </ref> (Greek [[Alpha]] = '''A'''), ''heth'' (Greek [[Epsilon]] = '''E'''), and '' 'ayin'' (Greek [[Omicron]] = '''O''') -- used to represent Greek vowels. The creation of true vowel letters was the most revolutionary linguistic contribution of the Greeks to the development of the alphabet. (For the early forms of the letters, the full complement of letters, and the first inscriptions, see the article [[Greek alphabet]].)
 
As the utility of an alphabet became evident, local varieties (sometimes called "epichoric" <ref>Buck, ''Greek Dialects'', uses this term.</ref>) came into use. The early Attic alphabet still did not distinguish between long and short vowels (i.e. ''ε'' and ''η'', ''ο'' and ''ω''). It lacked the letters '''Ψ''' (''psi'') and '''Ξ''' (''xi''), using '''ΦΣ''' and '''ΧΣ''' instead. Lower case letters (α, β, γ, etc.) and [[iota subscript]] (a mediaeval invention) were still far in the future. [[Digamma]] (no longer in use in the Classical period) stood for a W.
 
Meanwhile in [[Ionia]] across the Aegean, a new [[Ionic alphabet|Ionic]] form of the Attic alphabet was coming into being. It distinguished between long and short ''o'' ('''Ω''' and '''Ο''') and stopped using '''Η''' (''eta'') to mark the rough breathing (i.e. ''H'' sound). Instead it created a sign for a long ''e'' with it, keeping the letter '''Ε''' for the short ''e''. The digamma dropped out, and '''Ψ''' and '''Ξ''' came into existence, bringing the Attic alphabet to its classic 24-letter form. By 403 BCE, the by now internationally experienced city-state of [[Athens]] had perceived a need to standardize the alphabet, so it officially adopted the Ionic alphabet in that year. Many other cities had already adopted it.
 
When the ordinary citizen of Ancient Greece read inscriptions and the educated Greek read literature, what they saw was an all upper case Ionic alphabet: Α, Β, Γ, Δ, etc. By the time lower case letters, iota subscripts, accent marks, rough or smooth breathing marks over letters, and punctuation appeared in written Greek in the Middle Ages, Attic Greek writings had not been produced by native speakers for some centuries. Ancient Attic literature as published today thus makes use of a number of such non-ancient features. Uninformed modern readers might think that what they see on the page is the writing system exactly as the ancient Greeks used it in Classical Greece, but it is really Ancient Greek as transcribed by mediaeval [[Byzantine]] scribes.
 
==Φωνολογία==
A few of the most salient phonological characteristics of the Attic dialect are stated below.
 
===Vowels===
* Attic-Ionic changes an Indo-European ā to ē (long α to η); e.g., Latin māter/ Attic mētēr ("mother"). Attic keeps the ā after e, i, r: Attic chōrā/ Ionic chōrē, "country". Apparent exceptions are from subsequent sound changes: Attic *korwā to *korwē to korē, "girl".
* East Greek changes an Indo-European short a to short e: Artemis/ Artamis.
* Attic/Ionic interchanges i and u to assimilate with an i or u in a following syllable: biblion/ bublion, "book".
* In cases where an earlier ě or ǒ become ē or ō, Attic has spurious (non-original) diphthongs: eimi/ ēmi from *esmi, "I am", where the e lengthens to compensate for loss of s.
* Ancient Greek υ was originally pronounced as the oo in food and was replaced in other dialects by ου, but in Attic developed into a sound like the French u or German ü: Attic kurios, Boeotian kourios, "lord."
* In the original long [[diphthong]]s āi, ēi, ōi, the i stopped being pronounced. The mediaeval iota subscript captured this fact.
* Ā or ǎ followed by ě or ē contracts to ā, by ô or ō to ō in Attic: nikā-ein to nikān, "to conquer"; *Poseidāwōn to *Poseidāōn to Poseidōn, "Poseidon." However, ě followed by ā remains uncontracted: Timěās (personal name); while ě followed by ě becomes the spurious diphthong, ei: *treies to *trees to treis, "three", and ě followed by ǒ becomes the spurious diphthong, ou: *geněsǒs to *geněǒs to genous, "of a gens."
* In Attic ē followed by a short vowel may become ě followed by a long vowel (quantitative metathesis): epic nēos but Attic něōs, "of a ship"; Ionic basilēǒs but Attic basilěōs, "of a king."
* Sometimes one phoneme is created from two by taking away one of them (hyphaeresis): Attic bǒēthŏs for epic bǒēthŏǒs, "help."
* Long diphthongs are shortened before {{IPA|/s/}}. This occurs mainly in dat. pl. in 3rd declension: basilēw- + si(n) > basilěusi(n), but Ionic basilēusi(n).
<!--This is not relevant to Attic: The [[Homeric]] dialect was an artificial compound, which resembled Ionic; but it also differed from Attic in losing the augment on the past tenses, and much more frequent use of the dual and other archaic forms.-->
 
===Consonants===
* Attic typically has tt (ττ) where Ionic has ss (σσ). Buck explains it as an original *ky or *chy- becoming tt and then changing to ss in Ionic, as in glotta/glossa, "tongue", from *glochya (Hofmann). To this he adds *ty and *tw in some cases, as in tettares/tessares, "four", Latin quattuor. The case of thalatta/thalassa, "sea", is not so clear, as it is believed to have been a loan; however, there a supposed Macedonian dalmangchan.<ref>Beekes' ''Greek etymological dictionary'' discusses [http://www.indoeuropean.nl/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=leiden&morpho=0&basename=\data\ie\greek&first=41&sort=lemma&on_lemma=on&on_meaning=on&text_meaning=sea&method_meaning=substring&on_dialect=on&on_etymology=on thalassa]</ref> Attic sometimes used thalassa as well. It became standard in [[Koine Greek|Koiné]].
* Attic-Ionic uses moveable n, an n inserted at the end of a word ending in a vowel to prevent collision with a vowel at the start of the next word, under some circumstances, such as a dative or third person plural ending in -σι; or to a third person singular ending in -ε; or to esti, is. For example, pasi legousi, "they speak to all", but pasin elegon, "they were speaking to all".
* Attic lost the w (digamma) before historical times: Boeotian kalwos, Attic kalos, "good."
* Many dialects, including Attic, changed t to s before i or u: Eutretis, Boeotian place name, Attic Eutresis; Doric tu, Attic-Ionic su, "thou."
* ss became s in Attic.
* Attic is one of the h-dialects (Buck's term); that is, the spiritus asper, or rough breathing, typically came from a dropped initial s or i, but the h-dialects retained the spiritus; the others did not: Attic histamen (*sist-), Cretan istamen, "we stand."
 
==Μορφολογία==
Morphology as used here means "word formation." It can also include [[inflection]], the formation of the forms of [[declension]] or [[conjugation]] by suffixing endings, but that topic is presented under [[Ancient Greek grammar]].
* Attic tends to replace the -ter "doer of" suffix with -tes: dikastes for dikaster "judge".
* The Attic adjectival ending -eios and corresponding noun ending, both two-syllable with the [[diphthong]] ei, stand in place of ēios, with three syllables, in other dialects: politeia, Cretan politēia, "constitution", both from politewia, where the w drops out.
 
== Γραμματική ==
Η αττική ελληνική γραμματική είναι σε μεγάλο βαθμό η αρχαία ελληνική γραμματική, ή τουλάχιστον όταν παρουσιάζεται το τελευταίο θέμα είναι με τις ιδιαιτερότητες της αττικής διαλέκτου. Αυτό το τμήμα αναφέρει μόνο μερικές από τις αττικές ιδιαιτερότητες.
 
==Δείτε επίσης==
===Declension===
With regard to [[declension]], the stem is the part of the declined word to which case endings are suffixed. In the a-, alpha- or first declension feminines, the stem ends in long a, parallel to the Latin first declesion. In Attic-Ionic the stem vowel has changed to long e (eta) in the singular, except after e, i, r: gnome, gnomes, gnome(i), gnomen, etc., "opinion", but thea, theas, thea(i), thean, etc., "goddess."
 
The plural is the same in both cases: gnomai and theai, but other sound changes were more important in its formation. For example, original -as in the nominative plural contracted to the diphthong, -ai, which did not undergo the change of a to e. In the few a-stem masculines, the genitive singular follows the o-declension: stratiotes, stratiotou, stratiote, etc.
 
In the o-, omicron- or second declension, mainly masculines (but some feminines), the stem ends in o or e, which is composed in turn of a root plus the [[thematic vowel]], an o or e in [[Indo-European ablaut]] series parallel to similar formations of the verb. It is the equivalent of the Latin second declension. The alternation of Greek -os and Latin -us in the nominative singular is familiar to readers of Greek and Latin.
 
In Attic Greek an original *-osyo [[genitive]] singular ending in losing the s (as happens in all the dialects) lengthens the stem o to the spurious diphthong -ou (see above under Phonology, Vowels): logos "the word", logou from *logosyo, "of the word". The dative plural of Attic-Ionic had -oisi, which appears in early Attic but simplifies to -ois in later": anthropois "to or for the men".
 
==Βιβλιογραφία==
<references/>▼
 
==See also==
*[[Ελληνικό Αλφάβητο]]
*[[Ελληνική Γλωσσα]]
Γραμμή 89 ⟶ 21 :
*[[Αρχαία Ελληνική Φωνολογία]]
*[[Αρχαία Ελληνική Γραμματική]]
 
==Παραπομπές==
▲<references/>
 
==Πηγές==
Ανακτήθηκε από "https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Αττική_διάλεκτος"