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= [[Περιβαλλοντικές επιπτώσεις της ναυτιλίας]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_shipping ] =
[[File:Ship pumping ballast water.jpg|right|thumb|A cargo ship discharging ballast water into the sea.]]
The '''environmental impact of shipping''' includes [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, [[Environmental impact of shipping#Sound pollution|acoustic]], and [[oil pollution]].<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation">{{Cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-805052-1.00030-9 |chapter=Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation |title=World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation |pages=505–530 |year=2019 |last1=Walker |first1=Tony R. |last2=Adebambo |first2=Olubukola |last3=Del Aguila Feijoo |first3=Monica C. |last4=Elhaimer |first4=Elias |last5=Hossain |first5=Tahazzud |last6=Edwards |first6=Stuart Johnston |last7=Morrison |first7=Courtney E. |last8=Romo |first8=Jessica |last9=Sharma |first9=Nameeta |last10=Taylor |first10=Stephanie |last11=Zomorodi |first11=Sanam | name-list-format = vanc |isbn=978-0-12-805052-1 }}</ref> The [[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO) estimates that [[Carbon dioxide]] emissions from [[shipping]] were equal to 2.2% of the global human-made emissions in 2012<ref>{{Citation|title=Third IMO GHG Study 2014|url=http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Documents/Third%20Greenhouse%20Gas%20Study/GHG3%20Executive%20Summary%20and%20Report.pdf|publisher=International Maritime Organization}}</ref> and expects them to rise 50 to 250 percent by 2050 if no action is taken.<ref>{{Citation|title=Second IMO GHG Study 2014 |url=http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Documents/Third%20Greenhouse%20Gas%20Study/GHG3%20Executive%20Summary%20and%20Report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019064411/http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Documents/Third%20Greenhouse%20Gas%20Study/GHG3%20Executive%20Summary%20and%20Report.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2015-10-19 |publisher=International Maritime Organization }}</ref>
The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions<ref>International Maritime Organization, London (2008). [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090707040152/http://www.imo.org/Environment/mainframe.asp?topic_id=1737 "Working Group Oslo June 2008."]</ref> from Ships took place in [[Oslo]], Norway on 23–27 June 2008. It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping, and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves, for further consideration by IMO's Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC).<ref>SustainableShipping.com (2008). [http://www.sustainableshipping.com/news/2008/06/72085?gsid=bd38b351cb4e396c6349848dcc49aaf2&asi=1 "IMO targets greenhouse gas emissions."]{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (London: Petromedia Group). 2008-06-17.</ref>
==Ballast water==
{{Main article|Ballast water discharge and the environment}}
[[Ballast water]] discharges by ships can have a negative impact on the [[marine environment]].<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation"/>
Cruise ships, large tankers, and bulk cargo carriers use a huge amount of ballast water, which is often taken on in the coastal waters in one region after ships discharge [[wastewater]] or unload cargo, and discharged at the next port of call, wherever more cargo is loaded. Ballast water discharge typically contains a variety of biological materials, including [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[virus]]es, and [[bacteria]]. These materials often include non-native, nuisance, invasive, exotic species that can cause extensive ecological and economic damage to aquatic ecosystems along with serious human health problems.
==Sound pollution==
Noise pollution caused by shipping and other human enterprises has increased in [[contemporary history|recent history]].<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Noise could sound the death knell of ocean fish
| newspaper = [[The Hindu]]
| location = London
| date = 15 August 2010
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/article572548.ece
| access-date = 2011-03-06}}</ref> The noise produced by ships can travel long distances, and marine species who may rely on sound for their orientation, communication, and feeding, can be harmed by this sound pollution.<ref>{{Citation|publisher=University of Bristol|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100803212015.htm|title=Human Noise Pollution in Ocean Can Lead Fish Away from Good Habitats and Off to Their Death|date=13 August 2010|access-date=2011-03-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/beheco/arq117 |title=Behavioral plasticity in larval reef fish: Orientation is influenced by recent acoustic experiences |journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=1098–1105 |year=2010 |last1=Simpson |first1=Stephen D. |last2=Meekan |first2=Mark G. |last3=Larsen |first3=Nicholas J. |last4=McCauley |first4=Robert D. |last5=Jeffs |first5=Andrew | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref>
The [[Bonn Convention|Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species]] has identified ocean noise as a potential threat to marine life.<ref>{{Citation|title=Noise Pollution and Ship-Strikes |url=http://www.cms.int/press/pressconferences/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Media_advisory_%20Noise_pollution_whale_ship_strikes.pdf |publisher=UN Environment Programme-Convention on Migratory Species |access-date=2011-03-06 |deadurl=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722013241/http://www.cms.int/press/pressconferences/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Media_advisory_%20Noise_pollution_whale_ship_strikes.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref>
The disruption of whales' ability to communicate with one another is an extreme threat and is affecting their ability to survive. According to Discovery Channel's article on Sonic Sea Journeys Deep Into the Ocean,<ref>Discovery Channel's article on Sonic Sea Journeys Deep Into the Ocean</ref> over the last century, extremely loud noise from commercial ships, oil and gas exploration, naval sonar exercises and other sources has transformed the ocean's delicate acoustic habitat, challenging the ability of whales and other marine life to prosper and ultimately to survive. Whales are starting to react to this in ways that are life-threatening. Kenneth C. Balcomb, a whale researcher and a former U.S Navy officer,<ref>Kenneth C. Balcomb, a whale researcher and a former U.S Navy officer</ref> states that the day March 15, 2000, is the day of infamy. As Discovery says,<ref>Discovery says</ref> where him and his crew discovered whales swimming dangerously close to the shore. They're supposed to be in deep water. So I pushed it back out to sea, says Balcomb.<ref>says Balcomb</ref> Although sonar helps to protect us, it is destroying marine life. According to IFAW Animal Rescue Program Director Katie Moore,<ref>IFAW Animal Rescue Program Director Katie Moore</ref> "There's different ways that sounds can affect animals. There's that underlying ambient noise level that's rising, and rising, and rising that interferes with communication and their movement patterns. And then there's the more acute kind of traumatic impact of sound, that's causing physical damage or a really strong behavioral response. It's fight or flight".
==Wildlife collisions==
[[Marine mammal]]s, such as whales and manatees, risk being struck by ships, causing injury and death.<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation"/> For example, if a ship is traveling at a speed of only 15 [[Knot (unit)|knots]], there is a 79 percent chance of a collision being lethal to a whale.<ref name=one />
One notable example of the impact of ship collisions is the endangered [[North Atlantic right whale]], of which 400 or less remain.<ref name=TaylorWalker2017>{{cite journal | vauthors = Taylor S, Walker TR | title = North Atlantic right whales in danger | journal = Science | volume = 358 | issue = 6364 | pages = 730–731 | date = November 2017 | pmid = 29123056 | doi = 10.1126/science.aar2402 }}</ref> The greatest danger to the North Atlantic right whale is injury sustained from ship strikes.<ref name=one>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2006.00098.x |title=Vessel Collisions with Whales: The Probability of Lethal Injury Based on Vessel Speed |journal=Marine Mammal Science |volume=23 |pages=144–156 |year=2007 |last1=Vanderlaan |first1=Angelia S. M. |last2=Taggart |first2=Christopher T. | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref> Between 1970 and 1999, 35.5 percent of recorded deaths were attributed to collisions.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/08920750590951965 |title=Characterization of Ship Traffic in Right Whale Critical Habitat |journal=Coastal Management |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=263–278 |year=2005 |last1=Ward-Geiger |first1=Leslie I. |last2=Silber |first2=Gregory K. |last3=Baumstark |first3=René D. |last4=Pulfer |first4=Tanya L. | name-list-format = vanc |citeseerx=10.1.1.170.1740 }}</ref> During 1999 to 2003, incidents of mortality and serious injury attributed to ship strikes averaged one per year. In 2004 to 2006, that number increased to 2.6.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Reilly SB, Bannister JL, Best PB, Brown M, Brownell Jr RL, Butterworth DS, Clapham PJ, Cooke J, Donovan GP, Urbán J, Zerbini AN | title = Eubalaena glacialis. | journal = IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, version | year = 2010 | doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012.RLTS.T41712A17084065.en }}</ref> Deaths from collisions has become an extinction threat.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1513434.stm |title=Shipping threat to endangered whale |date=28 August 2001 |work=BBC News Online |publisher=BBC}}</ref> The United States' [[National Marine Fisheries Service]] (NMFS) and [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA) introduced [[vessel speed restrictions to reduce ship collisions with North Atlantic right whales]] in 2008, which expired in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Endangered Fish and Wildlife; Final Rule To Implement Speed Restrictions to Reduce the Threat of Ship Collisions With North Atlantic Right Whales|url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2008/10/10/E8-24177/endangered-fish-and-wildlife-final-rule-to-implement-speed-restrictions-to-reduce-the-threat-of-ship|website=[[Federal Register]]|date=October 10, 2008}}</ref> However, in 2017 an unprecedented mortality event occurred, resulting in the deaths of 17 North Atlantic Right Whales caused primarily from ship-strikes and entanglement in fishing gear.<ref name=TaylorWalker2017/>
==Atmospheric pollution==
[[Exhaust gas]]es from ships are considered to be a significant source of [[air pollution]], both for conventional pollutants and greenhouse gases.<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation"/>
There is a perception that cargo transport by ship is low in air pollutants, because for equal weight and distance it is the most efficient transport method, according to shipping researcher Alice Bows-Larkin.<ref name="bows">[http://voiceofrussia.com/uk/news/2014_06_27/Shipping-contributes-up-to-5-percent-of-worldwide-CO2-emissions-says-study-0947/ Shipping contributes up to 3 percent of worldwide CO2 emissions, says study], Voice of Russia UK. 27 June 2014.</ref> This is particularly true in comparison to [[Environmental impact of aviation|air freight]]; however, because sea shipment accounts for far more annual tonnage and the distances are often large, shipping's emissions are globally substantial.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2016.04.018 |title=Regulating global shipping corporations' accountability for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the seas |journal=Marine Policy |volume=69 |pages=159–170 |year=2016 |last1=Rahim |first1=Mia Mahmudur |last2=Islam |first2=Md. Tarikul |last3=Kuruppu |first3=Sanjaya | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref><ref name="bows"/> A difficulty is that the year-on-year increasing amount shipping overwhelms gains in efficiency, such as from [[Slow steaming|slow-steaming]] or the [[Kite applications#Cargo|use of kites]]. The growth in tonne-kilometers of sea shipment has averaged 4 percent yearly since the 1990s.<ref name="Tyndall">[http://www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/media/eps/schoolofmechanicalaerospaceandcivilengineering/research/centres/tyndall/pdf/High_Seas_High_Stakes_High_Seas_Project_Final_Report.pdf High Seas, High Stakes], Final Report. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Univ. of Manchester, UK. 2014.</ref> And it has grown by a factor of 5 since the 1970s.<ref name="bows"/> There are now over 100,000 transport ships at sea, of which about 6,000 are large container ships.<ref name="bows"/>
===Conventional pollutants===
[[Air pollution]] from cruise ships is generated by [[diesel engine]]s that burn high [[sulfur]] content [[fuel oil]], also known as bunker oil, producing [[sulfur dioxide]], [[nitrogen oxide]] and [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulate]], in addition to [[carbon monoxide]], [[carbon dioxide]], and hydrocarbons.<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation"/> [[Diesel exhaust]] has been classified by EPA as a likely human [[carcinogen]]. EPA recognizes that these emissions from marine diesel engines contribute to [[ozone]] and carbon monoxide nonattainment (i.e., failure to meet [[air quality]] standards), as well as adverse health effects associated with ambient concentrations of particulate matter and visibility, [[haze]], [[acid rain|acid deposition]], and [[eutrophication]] and [[nitrification]] of water.<ref name="68FR9751">US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Washington, DC. "Control of Emissions From New Marine Compression-Ignition Engines at or Above 30 Liters Per Cylinder." Final rule. ''Federal Register,'' {{USFR|68|9751}}, 2003-02-28.</ref> EPA estimates that large marine diesel engines accounted for about 1.6 percent of mobile source nitrogen oxide emissions and 2.8 percent of mobile source particulate emissions in the United States in 2000. Contributions of marine diesel engines can be higher on a port-specific basis. [[Ultra-low sulfur diesel]] (ULSD) is a standard for defining [[diesel fuel]] with substantially lowered [[sulfur]] contents. As of 2006, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in Europe and North America is of a ULSD type.
In 2016 the IMO has made new sulfur regulations which must be implemented by larger ships by 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://marine-electronics.eu/sulfur-regulations-in-shipping-industry-from-2020|title=New sulfur regulations from 2020 [Infographic]|author=|date=|website=marine-electronics.eu|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref>
Of total global air emissions, shipping accounts for 18 to 30 percent of the [[nitrogen oxide]] and 9 percent of the [[Sulfur oxide|sulphur oxides]].<ref name="Schrooten1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schrooten L, De Vlieger I, Panis LI, Chiffi C, Pastori E | title = Emissions of maritime transport: a European reference system | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 408 | issue = 2 | pages = 318–23 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19840885 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.07.037 }}</ref><ref name="vidal2009">{{Cite news
|first=John |last=Vidal |title=Health risks of shipping pollution have been 'underestimated' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/apr/09/shipping-pollution |work=The Guardian |date=2009-04-09
|access-date=2009-07-03}}</ref> Sulfur in the air creates [[acid rain]] which damages crops and buildings. When inhaled, sulfur is known to cause [[respiratory]] problems and even increases the risk of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]].<ref name="Harrabin">Harrabin, R. (25 June 2003). "EU faces ship clean-up call." ''BBC News''. Retrieved 1 November 2006, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3019686.stm</ref> According to Irene Blooming, a spokeswoman for the European environmental coalition [[Seas at Risk]], the fuel used in oil tankers and container ships is high in sulfur and cheaper to buy compared to the fuel used for domestic land use. "A ship lets out around 50 times more sulfur than a lorry per metric tonne of cargo carried."<ref name="Harrabin"/> Cities in the U.S. like [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Houston]], [[Galveston]], and [[Pittsburgh]] see some of the heaviest shipping traffic in the nation and have left local officials desperately trying to clean up the air.<ref name="Watson"/> Increasing trade between the U.S. and China is helping to increase the number of vessels navigating the [[Pacific]] and exacerbating many of the environmental problems. To maintain the level of growth China is experiencing, large amounts of [[grain]] are being shipped to China by the boat load. The number of voyages are expected to continue increasing.<ref>Schmidt, C., & Olicker, J. (20 April 2004). World in the Balance: China Revs Up [Transcript]. PBS: NOVA. Retrieved 26 November 2006, from https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3109_worldbal.html</ref>
===Greenhouse gas pollutants===
3.5 to 4 percent of all [[Global warming|climate change emissions]] are caused by shipping, primarily carbon dioxide.<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation"/><ref name="vidal2009" />
As one way to reduce the impact of [[greenhouse gas]] emissions from shipping, vetting agency RightShip developed an online "Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions Rating" as a systematic way for the industry to compare a ship's CO<sub>2</sub> emissions with peer vessels of a similar size and type. Based on the International Maritime Organisation's (IMO) Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) that applies to ships built from 2013, RightShip's GHG Rating can also be applied to vessels built prior to 2013, allowing for effective vessel comparison across the world's fleet. The GHG Rating utilises an A to G scale, where A represents the most efficient ships. It measures the theoretical amount of carbon dioxide emitted per tonne nautical mile travelled, based on the design characteristics of the ship at time of build such as cargo carrying capacity, engine power and fuel consumption. Higher rated ships can deliver significantly lower CO<sub>2</sub> emissions across the voyage length, which means they also use less fuel and are cheaper to run.
[[File:Harbor seals on Douglas breakwater.JPG|thumb|Cruise ship haze over Juneau, Alaska]]
===Stress for improvement===
One source of environmental stresses on maritime vessels recently has come from states and localities, as they assess the contribution of commercial marine vessels to regional air quality problems when ships are docked at port.<ref name="Schrooten2">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.071 |title=Inventory and forecasting of maritime emissions in the Belgian sea territory, an activity-based emission model |journal=Atmospheric Environment |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=667–676 |year=2008 |last1=Schrooten |first1=Liesbeth |last2=De Vlieger |first2=Ina |last3=Int Panis |first3=Luc |last4=Styns |first4=Karel |last5=Torfs |first5=Rudi | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref>
For instance, large marine diesel engines are believed to contribute 7 percent of mobile source nitrogen oxide emissions in [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana|Baton Rouge]]/[[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]. Ships can also have a significant impact in areas without large commercial ports: they contribute about 37 percent of total area nitrogen oxide emissions in the [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] area, and that percentage is expected to increase to 61 percent by 2015.<ref name="68FR9751" /> Again, there is little cruise-industry specific data on this issue. They comprise only a small fraction of the world shipping fleet, but cruise ship emissions may exert significant impacts on a local scale in specific coastal areas that are visited repeatedly. Shipboard incinerators also burn large volumes of garbage, plastics, and other [[waste]], producing ash that must be disposed of. Incinerators may release toxic emissions as well.
In 2005, [[MARPOL]] Annex VI came into force to combat this problem. As such cruise ships now employ [[CCTV]] monitoring on the smokestacks as well as recorded measuring via opacity meter while some are also using clean burning gas turbines for electrical loads and propulsion in sensitive areas.
==Oil spills==
Most commonly associated with ship pollution are [[oil spills]].<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation"/> While less frequent than the pollution that occurs from daily operations, oil spills have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs), the components in [[crude oil]], are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the [[sediment]] and marine environment.<ref name="Panetta">Panetta, L. E. (Chair) (2003). "America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change." Electronic Version, CD. Pew Oceans Commission.</ref> Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles. One of the more widely known spills was the [[Exxon Valdez]] incident in [[Alaska]]. The ship ran aground and dumped a massive amount of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers and volunteers, over 400,000 [[seabirds]], about 1,000 [[sea otters]], and immense numbers of fish were killed.<ref name="Panetta"/>
==International regulation==
Some of the major international efforts in the form of [[treaties]] are the Marine Pollution Treaty, Honolulu, which deals with regulating marine pollution from ships, and the UN Convention on Law of the Sea, which deals with marine species and pollution.<ref>Steger, M. B. (2003). ''Globalization: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford University Press Inc. New York.</ref> While plenty of local and international regulations have been introduced throughout [[maritime history]], much of the current regulations are considered inadequate. "In general, the treaties tend to emphasize the technical features of safety and pollution control measures without going to the root causes of sub-standard shipping, the absence of incentives for compliance and the lack of enforceability of measures."<ref>Khee-Jin Tan, A. (2006). ''Vessel-source marine pollution: the law and politics of international regulation''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press{{pn|date=September 2018}}</ref> The most common problems encountered with international shipping arise from paperwork errors and customs brokers not having the proper information about your items.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clxlogistics.com/top-4-challenges-you-need-to-master-for-international-shipping/|title=4 Challenges in International Shipping - CLX Logistics Blog|author=|date=11 September 2015|website=clxlogistics.com|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref> Cruise ships, for example, are exempt from regulation under the US discharge permit system (NPDES, under the Clean Water Act) that requires compliance with technology-based standards.<ref name="Panetta"/> In the [[Caribbean]], many ports lack proper [[waste disposal]] facilities, and many ships dump their waste at sea.<ref>United Nations Environment Programme in collaboration with GEF, the University of Kalmar, and the Municipality of Kalmar, Sweden, & the Governments of Sweden, Finland and Norway. (2006). ''Challenges to international waters: regional assessments in a global perspective'' [Electronic Version]. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved 5 January 2010, from http://www.unep.org/dewa/giwa/publications/finalreport/</ref> Moreover, due to the complexities of shipping trade and the difficulties involved in regulating this business, a comprehensive and generally acceptable regulatory framework on corporate responsibility for reducing GHG emissions is unlikely to be achieved soon. In fact, emissions are continuing to increase. Under these circumstances, it is necessary for the states, the shipping industry and global organizations to explore and discuss market based mechanisms for vessel-sourced GHG emissions reduction.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2016.04.018 |title=Regulating global shipping corporations' accountability for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the seas |journal=Marine Policy |volume=69 |pages=159–170 |year=2016 |last1=Rahim |first1=Mia Mahmudur |last2=Islam |first2=Md. Tarikul |last3=Kuruppu |first3=Sanjaya | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref>
==Sewage==
[[File:Smelly whale.jpg|thumb|dead whale|right|Carcass of a whale on a shore in Iceland.]]
The cruise line industry dumps {{convert|255,000|USgal|m3}} of [[greywater]] and {{convert|30,000|USgal|m3}} of [[blackwater (waste)|blackwater]] into the sea every day.<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation"/> Blackwater is sewage, [[wastewater]] from [[toilet]]s and medical facilities, which can contain harmful [[bacteria]], pathogens, [[virus]]es, [[intestinal parasite]]s, and harmful nutrients. Discharges of untreated or inadequately treated sewage can cause bacterial and viral [[pollution|contamination]] of [[fishery|fisheries]] and [[shellfish]] beds, producing risks to public health. Nutrients in sewage, such as [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]], promote excessive [[algal blooms]], which consumes [[oxygen]] in the water and can lead to [[fish kill]]s and destruction of other aquatic life. A large cruise ship (3,000 passengers and crew) generates an estimated 55,000 to 110,000 liters per day of blackwater waste.<ref name=cruisecontrol>The Ocean Conservancy, "Cruise Control, A Report on How Cruise Ships Affect the Marine Environment," May 2002, p. 13. - PDF [http://act.oceanconservancy.org/site/DocServer/cruisecontrol.pdf?docID=141]</ref>
Due to the environmental impact of shipping, and sewage in particular [[MARPOL 73/78|marpol]] annex IV was brought into force September 2003 strictly limiting untreated waste discharge. Modern cruise ships are most commonly installed with a [[membrane bioreactor]] type treatment plant for all blackwater and greywater, such as (https://web.archive.org/web/20130408054426/http://www.gertsen-olufsen.com/Ship-Offshore/Products/G-O_Brands/G-O_Bioreactor.aspx), Zenon or [https://web.archive.org/web/20110715193114/http://www.rochem.com/htm/Rochem_Ultrafiltration.htm Rochem] which produce near drinkable quality effluent to be re-used in the machinery spaces as technical water.
==Cleaning==
Greywater is wastewater from the [[sink]]s, [[shower]]s, [[galley (kitchen)|galley]]s, [[laundry]], and [[cleanliness|cleaning]] activities aboard a ship. It can contain a variety of pollutant substances, including [[fecal coliforms]], [[detergent]]s, [[oil]] and grease, [[metal]]s, [[organic compound]]s, [[petroleum]] [[hydrocarbon]]s, nutrients, [[food waste]], [[medical waste|medical]] and dental waste. Sampling done by the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] and the state of Alaska found that untreated greywater from cruise ships can contain pollutants at variable strengths and that it can contain levels of fecal coliform bacteria several times greater than is typically found in untreated domestic wastewater.<ref>EPA Draft Discharge Assessment Report, pp. 3-5 - 3-6.</ref> Greywater has potential to cause adverse environmental effects because of concentrations of nutrients and other [[biochemical oxygen demand|oxygen-demanding]] materials, in particular. Greywater is typically the largest source of liquid waste generated by cruise ships (90 to 95 percent of the total). Estimates of greywater range from 110 to 320 liters per day per person, or 330,000 to 960,000 liters per day for a 3,000-person cruise ship.<ref>Cruise Control, p. 15.</ref>
==Solid waste==
Solid waste generated on a ship includes [[glass]], [[paper]], cardboard, [[aluminium]] and [[steel]] cans, and [[plastic]]s.<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation"/> It can be either non-hazardous or hazardous in nature. Solid waste that enters the ocean may become [[marine debris]], and can then pose a threat to marine organisms, humans, coastal communities, and industries that utilize marine waters. Cruise ships typically manage solid waste by a combination of [[source reduction]], [[waste minimization]], and [[recycling]]. However, as much as 75 percent of solid waste is [[incineration|incinerated]] on board, and the [[incinerator bottom ash|ash]] typically is discharged at sea, although some is landed ashore for disposal or recycling. [[Marine mammal]]s, fish, [[sea turtle]]s, and birds can be injured or killed from entanglement with plastics and other solid waste that may be released or disposed off of cruise ships. On average, each cruise ship passenger generates at least two pounds of non-hazardous solid waste per day.<ref>The Center for Environmental Leadership in Business, "A Shifting Tide, Environmental Challenges and Cruise Industry Responses," p. 14.</ref> With large cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers, the amount of waste generated in a day can be massive. For a large cruise ship, about 8 [[ton]]s of solid waste are generated during a one-week cruise.<ref>Bluewater Network, "Cruising for Trouble: Stemming the Tide of Cruise Ship Pollution," March 2000, p. 5. A report prepared for an industry group estimated that a 3,000-person cruise ship generates {{convert|1.1|e6USgal|m3}} of graywater during a seven-day cruise. Don K. Kim, "Cruise Ship Waste Dispersion Analysis Report on the Analysis of Graywater Discharge," presented to the International Council of Cruise Lines, 14 September 2000.</ref> It has been estimated that 24 percent of the solid waste generated by vessels worldwide (by weight) comes from cruise ships.<ref>National Research Council, Committee on Shipboard Wastes, Clean Ships, Clean Ports, Clean Oceans: Controlling Garbage and Plastic Wastes at Sea (National Academy Press, 1995), Table 2-3, pp. 38-39.</ref> Most cruise ship garbage is treated on board (incinerated, pulped, or ground up) for discharge overboard. When garbage must be off-loaded (for example, because glass and aluminium cannot be incinerated), cruise ships can put a strain on port reception facilities, which are rarely adequate to the task of serving a large passenger vessel.<ref>National Research Council, Committee on Shipboard Wastes, Clean Ships, Clean Ports, Clean Oceans: Controlling Garbage and Plastic Wastes at Sea (National Academy Press, 1995), p. 126.</ref>
==Bilge water==
On a ship, oil often leaks from [[engine]] and [[machine]]ry spaces or from engine maintenance activities and mixes with water in the [[bilge]], the lowest part of the [[hull (watercraft)|hull]] of the ship, but there is a filter to clean bilge water before being discharged.<ref name="Walker et al 2019 Environmental Effects of Marine Transportation"/> Oil, [[gasoline]], and [[by-product]]s from the biological breakdown of petroleum products can harm fish and [[wildlife]] and pose threats to human health if ingested. Oil in even minute concentrations can kill fish or have various [[sub-lethal damage|sub-lethal]] chronic effects. Bilge water also may contain solid wastes and [[pollution|pollutant]]s containing high levels of [[biological oxygen demand|oxygen-demanding]] material, oil and other chemicals. A typically large cruise ship will generate an average of 8 metric tons of oily bilge water for each 24 hours of operation.<ref>"Shifting Tide," p. 16.</ref> To maintain ship stability and eliminate potentially hazardous conditions from oil [[vapor]]s in these areas, the bilge spaces need to be flushed and periodically pumped dry. However, before a bilge can be cleared out and the water discharged, the oil that has been accumulated needs to be extracted from the bilge water, after which the extracted oil can be reused, incinerated, and/or offloaded in port. If a separator, which is normally used to extract the oil, is faulty or is deliberately bypassed, untreated oily bilge water could be discharged directly into the ocean, where it can damage marine life. A number of cruise lines have been charged with [[environmental crime|environmental violation]]s related to this issue in recent years.<ref>{{Cite news | title = Cruise ship pollution fine draws criticism | last = Adams | first = Marilyn | date = 2002-11-07 | publisher = [[USA Today]] | url = https://www.usatoday.com/travel/news/2002/2002-11-08-cruises-1acover.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | title = Liner may have dumped oily water, reports say | last = Huettel | first = Steve | date = 2004-04-14 | publisher = [[St. Petersburg Times]] | url = http://www.sptimes.com/2004/04/14/Business/Liner_may_have_dumped.shtml}}</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | last = Copeland| first = Claudia | url = http://www.ncseonline.org/NLE/CRSreports/07Dec/RL32450.pdf| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081217143715/http://www.ncseonline.org/NLE/CRSreports/07Dec/RL32450.pdf| dead-url = yes| archive-date = 17 December 2008| title = Cruise Ship Pollution: Background, Laws and Regulations, and Key Issues | work = CRS Report for Congress. Order Code RL32450. | location = Washington, DC | publisher = Congressional Research Service | date = 6 February 2008 }}
== External links ==
*[http://www.marisec.org/environmental-compliance/ Maritime International Secretariat Services] - Shipping Industry Guidance on Environmental Compliance
*[http://globallast.imo.org/ GloBallast partnership] ([[International Maritime Organization|IMO]])
*[http://www.ecolex.org/server2.php/libcat/docs/TRE/Multilateral/En/TRE001412.pdf International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments, 2004] - IMO
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091025181631/http://oceana.org/north-america/what-we-do/stop-cruise-ship-pollution Cruise Ship Pollution Overview] - Oceana
*[http://ballastmasterultrav.westfalia-separator.com/ballast-water-treatment.html Ecological facts on ballast water]
*[http://www.baltrader.com/sustainability/co2-calculator/ CO2 emissions calculator for transporting cargo by sea]
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