Χρήστης:Greek Scorpion/πρόχειρο 5: Διαφορά μεταξύ των αναθεωρήσεων

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Ετικέτα: επεξεργασία κώδικα 2017
Γραμμή 2:
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[[File:State 2009-01- Iss 530 (IA sim state-magazine 2009-01 530).pdf|thumb|Full [[Image scanner|scan]] of the January 2009 issue of ''[[State Magazine]]'', published by the [[United States Department of State]]]]
{{Ραδιοφωνικός σταθμός
A '''magazine''' is a [[periodical literature|periodical publication]] which is [[printing|printed]] in [[Coated paper|gloss-coated]] and [[Paint sheen|matte]] paper. Magazines are generally published on a regular schedule and contain a variety of [[content (media)|content]]. They are generally financed by [[advertising]], by a [[newsagent's shop|purchase price]], by prepaid [[subscription business model|subscriptions]], or a combination of the three.
| όνομα = Στο Κόκκινο 105,5
| έμβλημα =
| μέγεθος εικόνας =
| λεζάντα =
| οργανισμός = [[ΣΥΡΙΖΑ]]
| ίδρυση = 6 Φεβρουαρίου 2006
| Έναρξη λειτουργίας = 6 Φεβρουαρίου 2006
| Τέλος λειτουργίας =
| Επαναλειτουργία =
| Συνεργαζόμενοι σταθμοί =
| Σλόγκαν = Το ραδιόφωνο που ακούει
| τοποθεσία = Σαρρή 19, Ψυρρή, Αθήνα, Ελλάδα
| Γλώσσα = [[Ελληνικά]]
| Περιοχή εκπομπής = [[Αττική]]
| συχνότητα = 105,5 FM
| ιστοσελίδα = [http://www.stokokkino.gr Επίσημη ιστοσελίδα]
| winamp =
| real =
| windows =
}}
 
==Definition==
Ο ραδιοφωνικός σταθμός '''Στο Κόκκινο''', είναι ο κομματικός ραδιοσταθμός του [[ΣΥΡΙΖΑ]]. Εκπέμπει στην [[Αττική]] από το 2006.
By definition, a ''magazine'' paginates with each issue starting at page three, with the standard sizing being {{cvt|8+3/8|×|10+7/8|in}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://graphicdesign.sfcc.spokane.edu/dZine/projects/Q3-publication%20design/MagazinePageSize/MagazinePageSize.pdf|title=Magazine Page Size|date=18 September 2019|website=Graphic Design at Spokane Falls Community College|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422042729/https://graphicdesign.sfcc.spokane.edu/dZine/projects/Q3-publication%20design/MagazinePageSize/MagazinePageSize.pdf|archive-date=22 April 2019}}</ref> However, in the technical sense a ''[[Academic journal|journal]]'' has continuous pagination throughout a volume. Thus ''[[Business Week]]'', which starts each issue anew with page one, is a magazine, but the ''[[Association for Business Communication#Journal of Business Communication|Journal of Business Communication]]'', which continues the same sequence of pagination throughout the coterminous year, is a journal. Some professional or [[Trade_magazine|trade publications]] are also [[Peer_review|peer-reviewed]], for example the ''[[American Institute of Certified Public Accountants#External links|Journal of Accountancy]]''. Non-peer-reviewed academic or professional publications are generally ''professional magazines''. That a publication calls itself a ''journal'' does not make it a journal in the technical sense; ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' is actually a [[newspaper]].<ref name="Maddox">{{cite book
| last =Howe
| first =Maddox
| title =Management of Sports and Physical Education
| publisher =Scientific e-Resources
| date =2018
| pages =292–293
| language =en
| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=E-TEDwAAQBAJ&q=Non-peer-reviewed+academic+or+professional+publications+are+generally+professional+magazines.+That+a+publication+calls+itself+a+journal+does+not+make+it+a+journal+in+the+technical+sense%3B+The+Wall+Street+Journal+is+actually+a+newspaper.&pg=PA292
| isbn =9781839473708
}}</ref>
 
===Etymology===
== Ιστορία ==
The word "magazine" derives from [[Middle French]] {{lang|frm|magasin}} meaning "warehouse, depot, store", from Italian {{lang|it|magazzino}}, from Arabic {{lang|ar|makhazin}}, the plural of {{lang|ar|makhzan}} meaning "storehouse".<ref name="etymonline.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/magazine|title=magazine {{!}} Origin and meaning of magazine by Online Etymology Dictionary|website=www.etymonline.com|language=en|access-date=2019-10-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813230843/https://www.etymonline.com/word/magazine|archive-date=13 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> At its root, the word "magazine" refers to a collection or a storage device/facility.<ref name="etymonline.com"/> In the case of written publication, it refers to a collection of [[written work|written]] [[article (publishing)|article]]s. This explains why magazine publications share the word root with [[gunpowder magazine]]s, [[artillery magazine]]s, [[firearm magazine]]s, and in French and Russian (adopted from French as {{lang|ru|Магазин}}), [[retailer]]s such as [[department store]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/magazine|title=Definition of MAGAZINE|website=www.merriam-webster.com|access-date=18 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427211822/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/magazine|archive-date=27 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
Ξεκίνησε να εκπέμπει στις [[6 Φεβρουαρίου]] του [[2006]], ως πειρατικός σταθμός, προσκείμενος στον [[ΣΥΝ]]. Κατά την πρώτη περίοδο της λειτουργίας του, υπήρξαν πολλές αντιδράσεις για τη λειτουργία του, με τον δημοσιογράφο [[Μάκης Τριανταφυλλόπουλος|Μάκη Τριανταφυλλόπουλο]], να τοποθετεί κρυφές κάμερες στα στούντιο του σταθμού, προκειμένου να αποδείξει το παράνομο καθεστώς του σταθμού. Το 2011, ο σταθμός έλαβε απο το [[ΕΣΡ]], Βεβαίωση Νόμιμης Λειτουργίας.<ref>[http://e-tetradio.gr/article/13255/10-xronia-ta-FM-sto-Kokkino 10 χρόνια τα FM "Στο Κόκκινο".] e-tetradio.gr, 6 Φεβρουαρίου 2017</ref>
 
==Distribution==
Από το 2015, στα γραφεία του σταθμού ή και των συνεργαζόμενων σταθμών, πραγματοποιούνται καταλήψεις απο διάφορες ομάδες ατόμων, με διάφορα αιτήματα<ref>[http://www.protothema.gr/greece/article/530582/upo-katalipsi-apo-adiexousiastes-o-radiofonikos-stathmos-1055-sto-kokkino/ Υπό κατάληψη από αντιεξουσιαστές ο ραδιοφωνικός σταθμός «105,5 Στο Κόκκινο»] protothema.gr, 25 Νοεμβρίου 2015</ref>. Στις 23 Μαρτίου 2015<ref>[http://www.stokokkino.gr/article/1000000000006596/Upo-katalipsi-o-1055-Sto-Kokkino Υπό κατάληψη ο 105,5 Στο Κόκκινο] stokokkino.gr, 23 Μαρτίου 2015</ref> και στις 17 Μαΐου 2017<ref>[http://www.efsyn.gr/arthro/katalipsi-ston-rs-sto-kokkino Κατάληψη στον Ρ/Σ "Στο Κόκκινο"] www.efsyn.gr, 18 Μαΐου 2017</ref><ref>[http://www.enikos.gr/society/516095/katalipsi-ston-radiofoniko-stathmo-sto-kokkino Κατάληψη στον ραδιοφωνικό σταθμό "Στο Κόκκινο"] enikos.gr, 18 Μαΐου 2017</ref>, το κτήριο του σταθμού, καταλήφθηκε απο αντιεξουσιαστές, με σκοπό την πραγματοποίηση, των πολιτικών τους αιτημάτων. Την 1η Ιουνίου 2017, το κτήριο του σταθμού "Στο Κόκκινο 93,4" της [[Θεσσαλονίκη]]ς, καταλήφθηκε απο οπαδούς του [[Ηρακλής Θεσσαλονίκης|Ηρακλή]], διαμαρτυρόμενοι για την οικονομική κρίση του συλλόγου<ref>[http://bluearena.gr/blog/2017/06/01/katalipsi-sto-kokkino-934/ Κατάληψη στο Κόκκινο 93,4] bluearena.gr, 1 Ιουνίου 2017</ref>.
[[File:Jakarta Magazines Rack.jpg|thumb|English print magazines]]
[[File:German Printmagazines.jpg|thumb|German print magazines]]
Print magazines can be distributed through the [[mail]], through sales by [[Newsagent's shop|newsstands]], [[Bookselling|bookstores]], or other vendors, or through free distribution at selected pick-up locations. [[Digital_distribution|Electronic distribution]] methods can include [[social media]], [[email]], [[News_aggregator|news aggregators]], and visibility of a publication's [[website]] and [[search engine]] results. The traditional [[subscription business model]]s for distribution fall into three main categories:
 
===Paid circulation===
Επίσης οι εργαζόμενοι του σταθμού είναι απλήρωτοι εδώ και μήνες<ref>[http://www.iefimerida.gr/news/346020/ergazomenoi-sto-kokkino-o-syriza-mas-ehei-aplirotoys-ora-na-xekatharisei-tis-protheseis Εργαζόμενοι «Στο Κόκκινο»: Ο ΣΥΡΙΖΑ μας έχει απλήρωτους, ώρα να ξεκαθαρίσει τις προθέσεις του.] iefimerida.gr, 22 Ιουνίου 2017</ref>.
In this model, the magazine is sold to readers for a price, either on a per-issue basis or by subscription, where an annual fee or monthly price is paid and issues are sent by post to readers. Paid circulation allows for defined readership statistics.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://knowledge.auditedmedia.com/featured-content/circulation-101-us-newspaper-terms-for-paid-and-business-traveler-circulation|title=Circulation 101: U.S. Newspaper Terms for Paid and Business/Traveler Circulation|access-date=18 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118122845/https://knowledge.auditedmedia.com/featured-content/circulation-101-us-newspaper-terms-for-paid-and-business-traveler-circulation|archive-date=18 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Beech|first=Valerie|title=Research Guides: Advertising & Public Relations: Circulation data|url=https://libguides.marquette.edu/c.php?g=36683&p=233038|access-date=2020-10-09|website=libguides.marquette.edu|language=en}}</ref>
 
===Non-paid circulation===
==Παραπομπές==
This means that there is no cover price and issues are given away, for example in street dispensers, airline, or included with other products or publications. Because this model involves giving issues away to unspecific populations, the statistics only entail the number of issues distributed, and not who reads them.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Bray
| first =Skylar
| title =Vocational Education
| publisher =Scientific e-Resources
| date =2018
| pages =68
| language =en
| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=2eLEDwAAQBAJ
| isbn =9781839472312
}}</ref>
 
===Controlled circulation===
This is the model used by many [[trade magazine]]s (industry-based periodicals) distributed only to qualifying readers, often for free and determined by some form of survey. Because of costs (e.g., printing and postage) associated with the medium of print, publishers may not distribute free copies to everyone who requests one (unqualified leads); instead, they operate under controlled circulation, deciding who may receive free subscriptions based on each person's qualification as a member of the trade (and likelihood of buying, for example, likelihood of having corporate purchasing authority, as determined from job title). This allows a high level of certainty that advertisements will be received by the advertiser's target audience,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ppa.co.uk/all-about-magazines/circulation|title=Home Page – PPA|website=PPA|access-date=12 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308041226/http://www.ppa.co.uk/all-about-magazines/circulation/|archive-date=8 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and it avoids wasted printing and distribution expenses. This latter model was widely used before the rise of the [[World Wide Web]] and is still employed by some titles. For example, in the United Kingdom, a number of computer-industry magazines use this model, including ''[[Computer Weekly]]'' and ''[[Computing (magazine)|Computing]]'', and in finance, ''[[Waters Magazine]]''. For the global media industry, an example would be ''[[VideoAge International]].''<ref name="Maddox" />
 
==History==
[[File:M. Browne - Herbert Railton - Sydney Grundy - Arthur Sullivan - Haddon Hall.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Front cover of 1 October 1892 issue of ''[[The Illustrated London News]]'']]
The earliest example of magazines was ''[[Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen]]'', a literary and philosophy magazine, which was launched in 1663 in Germany.<ref name="mdes">{{cite web|title=History of magazines|url=http://www.magazinedesigning.com/history-of-the-magazines/|website=Magazine Designing|access-date=10 October 2013|date=26 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029183917/http://www.magazinedesigning.com/history-of-the-magazines/|archive-date=29 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Gentleman's Magazine]]'', first published in 1731 in London was the first general-interest magazine.<ref name="History"/> [[Edward Cave]], who edited ''The Gentleman's Magazine'' under the pen name "[[Edward Cave|Sylvanus Urban]]," was the first to use the term "magazine," on the analogy of a military storehouse.<ref>''[[OED]]'', ''s.v.'' "Magazine", and {{cite web|url=http://johnsonsdictionaryonline.com/?p=5695|title=Magazine – A Dictionary of the English Language – Samuel Johnson – 1755|website=johnsonsdictionaryonline.com|access-date=16 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127040136/http://johnsonsdictionaryonline.com/?p=5695|archive-date=27 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Founded by [[Herbert Ingram]] in 1842, ''[[The Illustrated London News]]'' was the first [[illustrated]] magazine.<ref name="History">{{cite news|title=The History of Magazines|url=https://www.magazines.com/history-of-magazines|publisher=Magazines.com|access-date=16 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827171442/https://www.magazines.com/history-of-magazines|archive-date=27 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
===Britain===
The oldest consumer magazine still in print is ''[[The Scots Magazine]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.allmediascotland.com/press/20344/app-launches-for-the-scots-magazine/|title=App launches for The Scots Magazine - allmediascotland…media jobs, media release service and media resources for all|website=www.allmediascotland.com|access-date=18 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914171226/http://www.allmediascotland.com/press/20344/app-launches-for-the-scots-magazine/|archive-date=14 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> which was first published in 1739, though multiple changes in ownership and gaps in publication totalling over 90 years weaken that claim. ''[[Lloyd's List]]'' was founded in Edward Lloyd's England coffee shop in 1734; and though its online platform is still updated daily it has not been published as a magazine since 2013 after 274 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lloydslist.com/ll/incoming/article429827.ece|title=Lloyd's List set to become a totally digital service on 20 December 2013|website=lloydslist.com|access-date=7 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821210334/https://www.lloydslist.com/ll/incoming/article429827.ece|archive-date=21 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
===France===
{{main|History of French journalism|History of journalism}}
[[File:GazettedeFrance.jpg|upright=0.7|thumb|right|''La Gazette'', 26 December 1786]]
Under the ancient regime, the most prominent magazines were ''[[Mercure de France]]'', ''[[Journal des sçavans]]'', founded in 1665 for scientists, and ''[[La Gazette (France)|Gazette de France]]'', founded in 1631. [[Jean Loret]] was one of France's first journalists. He disseminated the weekly news of music, dance and Parisian society from 1650 until 1665 in verse, in what he called a ''gazette burlesque'', assembled in three volumes of ''La Muse historique'' (1650, 1660, 1665). The French press lagged a generation behind the British, for they catered to the needs the aristocracy, while the newer British counterparts were oriented toward the middle and working classes.<ref>Stephen Botein, Jack R. Censer, and Harriet Ritvo, "The periodical press in eighteenth-century English and French society: a cross-cultural approach." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 23#3 (1981): 464–490.</ref>
 
Periodicals were censored by the central government in Paris. They were not totally quiescent politically—often they criticized Church abuses and bureaucratic ineptitude. They supported the monarchy and they played at most a small role in stimulating the revolution.<ref>Jack Censer, ''The French press in the age of Enlightenment'' (2002).</ref> During the Revolution, new periodicals played central roles as propaganda organs for various factions. [[Jean-Paul Marat]] (1743–1793) was the most prominent editor. His ''[[L'Ami du peuple]]'' advocated vigorously for the rights of the lower classes against the enemies of the people Marat hated; it closed when he was assassinated. After 1800 Napoleon reimposed strict censorship.<ref>Robert Darnton and Daniel Roche, eds., ''Revolution in Print: the Press in France, 1775–1800'' (1989)</ref>
 
Magazines flourished after Napoleon left in 1815. Most were based in Paris and most emphasized literature, poetry and stories. They served religious, cultural and political communities. In times of political crisis they expressed and helped shape the views of their readership and thereby were major elements in the changing political culture.<ref>[[Keith Michael Baker]], et al., ''The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture: The transformation of the political culture, 1789–1848'' (1989).</ref> For example, there were eight Catholic periodicals in 1830 in Paris. None were officially owned or sponsored by the Church and they reflected a range of opinion among educated Catholics about current issues, such as the 1830 July Revolution that overthrew the Bourbon monarchy. Several were strong supporters of the Bourbon kings, but all eight ultimately urged support for the new government, putting their appeals in terms of preserving civil order. They often discussed the relationship between church and state. Generally, they urged priests to focus on spiritual matters and not engage in politics. Historian M. Patricia Dougherty says this process created a distance between the Church and the new monarch and enabled Catholics to develop a new understanding of church-state relationships and the source of political authority.<ref>M. Patricia Dougherty, "The French Catholic press and the July Revolution." ''French History'' 12#4 (1998): 403–428.</ref>
 
=== Turkey ===
 
==== General ====
The ''Moniteur Ottoman'' was a gazette written in [[French language|French]] and first published in 1831 on the order of [[Mahmud II]]. It was the first [[Government gazette|official gazette]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], edited by Alexandre Blacque at the expense of the [[Sublime Porte]]. Its name perhaps referred to the French newspaper ''[[Le Moniteur Universel]]''. It was issued weekly. ''[[Takvim-i Vekayi|Takvim-i vekayi]]'' was published a few months later, intended as a translation of the ''Moniteur'' into [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]. After having been edited by former Consul for Denmark "''M. Franceschi''", and later on by "''Hassuna de Ghiez''", it was lastly edited by Lucien Rouet. However, facing the hostility of embassies, it was closed in the 1840s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Qiling |first=Ma'muriyatiga Murojaat |title=Usually a periodical publication: MAGAZINE |work=hozir.org |publisher=hozir.org |date=2019 |url=http://hozir.org/usually-a-periodical-publication.html }}</ref>
 
==== Satire ====
Satirical magazines of Turkey have a long tradition, with the first magazine (''Diyojen'') published in 1869. There are currently around 20 [[satirical magazine]]s; the leading ones are ''[[Penguen]]'' (70,000 weekly circulation), ''LeMan'' (50,000) and ''Uykusuz''. Historical examples include [[Oğuz Aral]]'s magazine ''[[Gırgır]]'' (which reached a circulation of 500,000 in the 1970s) and ''Marko Paşa'' (launched 1946). Others include ''L-Manyak'' and ''Lombak''.
 
===United States===
{{Further|History of American journalism|Mass media and American politics}}
 
====Colonial America====
 
Publishing was a very expensive industry in colonial times. Paper and printer's ink were taxed imported goods and their quality was inconsistent. [[Import-Export Clause|Interstate tariffs]] and a poor road system hindered distribution, even on a regional scale. Many magazines were launched, most failing within a few editions, but publishers kept trying. [[Benjamin Franklin]] is said to have envisioned one of the first magazines of the American colonies in 1741, the ''General Magazine and Historical Chronicle''. The ''Pennsylvania Magazine'', edited by [[Thomas Paine]], ran only for a short time but was a very influential publication during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. The final issue containing the text of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] was published in 1776.<ref name=vogue>{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Daniel Delis |title=As Seen in Vogue |date=2004 |page=2}}</ref>
 
====Late 19th century====
[[File:Harper's January.png|thumb|right|upright|''Harper's Monthly'', a literary and political force in the late 19th century]]
In the mid-1800s, monthly magazines gained popularity. They were general interest to begin, containing some news, vignettes, poems, history, political events, and social discussion.<ref>Straubhaar, LaRose, Davenport. ''Media Now: Understanding Media, Culture, and Technology'' (Nelson Education, 2015)</ref> Unlike newspapers, they were more of a monthly record of current events along with entertaining stories, poems, and pictures. The first periodicals to branch out from news were [[Harper's Magazine|''Harper's'']] and ''[[The Atlantic]]'', which focused on fostering the arts.<ref name="Biagi">Biagi, Shirley. Media Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media, 2013 Update. Cengage Publishing, 2013. Textbook.</ref> Both ''Harper's'' and ''The Atlantic'' persist to this day, with Harper's being a cultural magazine and The Atlantic focusing mainly on world events. Early publications of Harper's even held famous works such as early publications of [[Moby-Dick|''Moby Dick'']] or famous events such as the laying of the world's first [[transatlantic telegraph cable]]; however, the majority of early content was trickle down from British events.<ref>{{Cite web|website = Harper's Magazine|title = About|url = http://harpers.org/history/|date = 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151205201154/http://harpers.org/history/|archive-date = 5 December 2015|url-status = live}}</ref>
 
The development of the magazines stimulated an increase in literary criticism and political debate, moving towards more opinionated pieces from the objective newspapers.<ref name="Biagi" /> The increased time between prints and the greater amount of space to write provided a forum for public arguments by scholars and critical observers.<ref name="Frank Luther Mott">{{cite book|first = Frank Luther|last = Mott|title = A History of American Magazines, 1865–1885|date = 1938|isbn = 9780674395527|publisher = Harvard University Press|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zt1V-ISXFsoC|access-date = 20 August 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160407224411/https://books.google.com/books?id=zt1V-ISXFsoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date = 7 April 2016|url-status = live}}</ref>
 
The early periodical predecessors to magazines started to evolve to modern definition in the late 1800s.<ref name="Frank Luther Mott" /> Works slowly became more specialized and the general discussion or cultural periodicals were forced to adapt to a consumer market which yearned for more localization of issues and events.<ref name="Biagi" />
 
====Progressive Era: 1890s–1920s====
[[File:LIFEMagazine10Jul1924.jpg|thumb|The Olympic Number of ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'', 10 Jul 1924. Issues of general interest magazines focused on a specific subject were referred to as "numbers" and featured cover art relevant to the given topic, in this case the [[1924 Summer Olympics]].]]
{{further|Muckrakers|Mass media and American politics}}
Mass circulation magazines became much more common after 1900, some with circulations in the hundreds of thousands of subscribers. Some passed the million-mark in the 1920s. It was an age of [[mass media]]. Because of the rapid expansion of national advertising, the cover price fell sharply to about 10 cents.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter C. Holloran et al. eds.|title=The A to Z of the Progressive Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rt3243E-Wm0C&pg=PA266|year=2009|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=266|isbn=9780810870697|access-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216215435/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rt3243E-Wm0C&pg=PA266|archive-date=16 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> One cause was the heavy coverage of corruption in politics, local government and big business, especially by ''Muckrakers.'' They were journalists who wrote for popular magazines to expose social and political sins and shortcomings. They relied on their own [[investigative journalism]] reporting; muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and [[Corruption in the United States|political corruption]]. Muckraking magazines–notably ''[[McClure's]]''–took on corporate monopolies and crooked [[political machine]]s while raising public awareness of chronic urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, and [[social issues]] like [[child labor]].<ref>Herbert Shapiro, ed., ''The muckrakers and American society'' (Heath, 1968), contains representative samples as well as academic commentary.</ref>
 
The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like [[Ray Stannard Baker]], [[George Creel]], and [[Brand Whitlock]]. Other like [[Lincoln Steffens]] exposed political corruption in many large cities; [[Ida Tarbell]] went after [[John D. Rockefeller]]'s [[Standard Oil Company]]. [[Samuel Hopkins Adams]] in 1905 showed the fraud involved in many patent medicines, [[Upton Sinclair]]'s 1906 novel ''[[The Jungle]]'' gave a horrid portrayal of how meat was packed, and, also in 1906, [[David Graham Phillips]] unleashed a blistering indictment of the U.S. Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up all the muck.<ref>Robert Miraldi, ed. ''The Muckrakers: Evangelical Crusaders'' (Praeger, 2000)</ref><ref>Harry H. Stein, "American Muckrakers and Muckraking: The 50-Year Scholarship," ''Journalism Quarterly'', (1979) 56#1 pp 9–17</ref>
 
====21st century====
In 2011, 152 magazines ceased operations.<ref name="ibt">{{cite news|title=In Memoriam: Magazines We Lost In 2012|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/memoriam-magazines-we-lost-2012-956388|access-date=9 October 2013|newspaper=IBT|date=22 December 2012|author=Christopher Zara|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140117072503/http://www.ibtimes.com/memoriam-magazines-we-lost-2012-956388|archive-date=17 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Between the years of 2008 to 2015, Oxbridge communications announced that 227 magazines launched and 82 magazines closed in 2012 in North America.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.statista.com/statistics/248772/number-of-magazine-launches-and-closures-in-north-america/|title=Number of magazine launches and closures in North America 2015 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502210920/http://www.statista.com/statistics/248772/number-of-magazine-launches-and-closures-in-north-america/|archive-date=2 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, according to MediaFinder.com, 93 new magazines launched between the first six months of 2014 and just 30 closed. The category which produced the most new publications was "Regional interest", of which six new magazines were launched, including ''12th & Broad'' and ''Craft Beer & Brewing''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/229207/93-magazines-launch-in-first-half-of-2014.html|title=93 Magazines Launch in First Half of 2014|last=Erik|first=Sass|date=1 July 2014|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603085037/http://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/229207/93-magazines-launch-in-first-half-of-2014.html|archive-date=3 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> However, two magazines had to change their print schedules. Johnson Publishing's ''Jet'' stopped printing regular issues making the transition to digital format, however still print an annual print edition.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.johnsonpublishing.com/index.php/in-the-news/jet-magazine-to-shift-to-digital-publishing-next-month/|title=Jet Magazine to Shift to Digital Publishing Next Month {{!}} Johnson Publishing Company|website=www.johnsonpublishing.com|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604140121/http://www.johnsonpublishing.com/index.php/in-the-news/jet-magazine-to-shift-to-digital-publishing-next-month/|archive-date=4 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''Ladies' Home Journal'' stopped their monthly schedule and home delivery for subscribers to become a quarterly newsstand-only special interest publication.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/25/business/media/ladies-home-journal-to-become-a-quarterly.html|title=Ladies' Home Journal to Become a Quarterly|last=Cohen|first=Noam|date=24 April 2014|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529134712/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/25/business/media/ladies-home-journal-to-become-a-quarterly.html|archive-date=29 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:NMA.0031686, Fashion Photo by Gunnar Lundh 1941.jpg|thumb|upright|Magazine stand, Sweden 1941]]According to statistics from the end of 2013, subscription levels for 22 of the top 25 magazines declined from 2012 to 2013, with just ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', ''[[Glamour (magazine)|Glamour]]'' and ''[[ESPN The Magazine]]'' gaining numbers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.magazinedeals.com/magazine/articles/brief-history-of-magazines-and-subscriptions.jsp|title=A Brief History of Magazines and Subscriptions|publisher=MagazineDeals.com|access-date=29 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629211757/http://www.magazinedeals.com/magazine/articles/brief-history-of-magazines-and-subscriptions.jsp|archive-date=29 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
====Women's magazines====
 
The "seven sisters" of American women's magazines are ''[[Ladies' Home Journal]]'', ''[[Good Housekeeping]]'', ''[[McCall's]]'', ''[[Woman's Day]]'', ''[[Redbook]]'', ''[[Family Circle]]'' and ''[[Better Homes and Gardens (magazine)|Better Homes and Gardens]]''. Some magazines like ''[[Godey's Lady's Book]]'' and ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'' were intended exclusively for a female audience, emphasizing the traditional gender roles of the 19th century. ''Harper's Bazaar'' was the first to focus exclusively on [[Haute couture|couture fashion]], fashion accessories and textiles. The inclusion of [[didactic]] content about housekeeping may have increased the appeal of the magazine for a broader audience of women and men concerned about the frivolity of a fashion magazine.<ref name=vogue/>
 
==Types==
{{Expand section|date=September 2020}}
 
===Women's interest===
====Fashion====
In the 1920s, new magazines appealed to young German women with a sensuous image and advertisements for the appropriate clothes and accessories they would want to purchase. The glossy pages of ''Die Dame'' and ''Das Blatt der Hausfrau'' displayed the "Neue Frauen," "New Girl" – what Americans called the flapper. This ideal young woman was chic, financially independent, and an eager consumer of the latest fashions. Magazines kept her up to date on fashion, arts, sports, and modern technology such as automobiles and telephones.<ref>Nina Sylvester, "Before Cosmopolitan: The Girl in German women's magazines in the 1920s." ''Journalism Studies'' 8#4 (2007): 550–554.</ref>
 
==== Parenting ====
The first women's magazine targeted toward wives and mothers was published in 1852.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-12-20|title=Women's magazines down the ages|url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/dec/20/women-pressandpublishing|access-date=2020-11-25|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> Through the use of advice columns, [[advertisements]], and various publications related to [[parenting]], women's magazines have influenced views of [[mother]]hood and child-rearing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Weaver|first=Heather|last2=Proctor|first2=Helen|date=May 2018|title=The Question of the Spotted Muumuu: How the Australian Women's Weekly Manufactured a Vision of the Normative School Mother and Child, 1930s–1980s|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/history-of-education-quarterly/article/question-of-the-spotted-muumuu-how-the-australian-womens-weekly-manufactured-a-vision-of-the-normative-school-mother-and-child-1930s1980s/EA2050E06204BCAD3179C835359BB084|journal=History of Education Quarterly|language=en|volume=58|issue=2|pages=229–260|doi=10.1017/heq.2018.4|issn=0018-2680}}</ref> Mass-marketed women's magazines have shaped and transformed cultural values related to parenting practices. As such, magazines targeting women and parenthood have exerted power and influence over ideas about motherhood and child-rearing.<ref name=":0" />
 
=== Religion ===
Religious groups have used magazines for spreading and communicating religious doctrine for over 100 years. ''The Friend'' was founded in Philadelphia in 1827 at the time of a major Quaker schism; it has been continually published and was renamed [[Friends Journal]] when the rival Quaker groups formally reconciled in the mid-1950s.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.friendsjournal.org/2005133/|title=Liberal Quaker Journal Publishing to 1955|work=Friends Journal|access-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105103/https://www.friendsjournal.org/2005133/|archive-date=17 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
Several Catholic magazines launched at the turn of the 20th Century that still remain in circulation including; [[St. Anthony Messenger]] founded in 1893 and published by the [[Franciscan Friars]] (O.F.M.) of St. John the Baptist Province, [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], Los Angeles based [https://angelusnews.com/ Tidings], founded in 1895 (renamed [[Angelus (magazine)|Angelus]] in 2016), and published jointly by The Tidings Corporation and the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles]], and [https://maryknollmagazine.org/ Maryknoll], founded in 1907 by the [https://maryknollsociety.org/ Foreign Mission Society of America] which brings news about the organization's charitable and missionary work in over 100 countries. There are over 100 Catholic magazines published in the United States, and thousands globally which range in scope from inspirational messages to specific religious orders, faithful family life, to global issues facing the worldwide Church.
 
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]]' primary magazine, ''[[The Watchtower]]'', was started by [[Charles Taze Russell]] in July 1879 under the title ''Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence''. The public edition of the magazine is one of the most widely distributed magazines in the world, with an average printing of approximately 62 million per issue.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.jw.org/en/publications/magazines/|title=Read the Watchtower and Awake! Magazines Online|work=JW.ORG|access-date=30 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923081144/https://www.jw.org/en/publications/magazines/|archive-date=23 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
 
===Celebrity, human interest, and gossip===
Magazines publishing stories and photos of high-profile individuals and celebrities have long been a popular format in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2002-08-26|title=Top 20 Best-Selling Magazines In Supermarkets|url=https://www.supermarketnews.com/archive/top-20-best-selling-magazines-supermarkets|access-date=2021-01-21|website=Supermarket News|language=en}}</ref> In 2019, ''[[People Magazine]]'' ranked second behind ESPN Magazine in total reach with a reported reach of 98.51 million. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-09|title= Reach of popular magazines in the United States in June 2019|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/208807/estimated-print-audience-of-popular-magazines/|access-date=2021-01-21|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref>
 
==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[History of journalism]]
* [[Automobile magazine]]s
* [[Boating magazine]]s
* [[British boys' magazines]]
* [[Business journalism|Business magazines]]
* [[Computer magazine]]s
* [[Customer magazine]]s
* [[Fantasy fiction magazine]]s
* [[Horror fiction magazine]]s
* [[Humor magazine]]s
* [[Inflight magazine]]s
* [[Literary magazine]]s
* [[Luxury magazine]]s
* [[Music magazine]]s
* [[News magazines]]
* [[Online magazine]]s
* [[Pornographic magazine]]s
* [[Pulp magazine]]s
* [[Science fiction magazine]]s
* [[Scientific journal]]s
* [[Shelter magazine]]s (home design and decorating)
* [[Sports magazine]]s
* [[Sunday magazine]]s
* [[Teen magazine]]s
* [[Trade journal]]s
* [[Trade magazine]]s
* [[Video magazine]]s
* [[Zine]]s
{{div col end}}
 
===Lists===
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[List of 18th-century British periodicals]]
* [[List of 19th-century British periodicals]]
* [[List of architecture magazines]]
* [[List of art magazines]]
* [[List of fashion magazines]]
* [[List of health and fitness magazines]]
* [[List of magazines by circulation]]
* [[:Category:Lists of magazines by country|Lists of magazines by country]]
* [[List of men's magazines]]
* [[List of online magazine archives]]
* [[List of political magazines]]
* [[List of railroad-related periodicals]]
* [[List of satirical magazines]]
* [[List of science magazines]]
* [[List of travel magazines]]
* [[List of teen magazines]]
* [[List of women's magazines]]
{{div col end}}
 
===Categories===
* {{c|Periodicals}}
* {{c|Religious magazines}}
* {{c|Satirical magazines}}
* {{c|Wildlife magazines}}
 
==References==
<references />
 
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Angeletti, Norberto, and Alberto Oliva. ''Magazines That Make History: Their Origins, Development, and Influence'' (2004), covers ''Time'', ''Der Spiegel'', ''Life'', ''Paris Match'', ''National Geographic'', ''Reader's Digest'', ''¡Hola!'', and ''People''
* Brooker, Peter, and Andrew Thacker, eds. ''The Oxford Critical and Cultural History of Modernist Magazines: Volume I: Britain and Ireland 1880–1955'' (2009)
* Buxton, William J., and Catherine McKercher. "Newspapers, magazines and journalism in Canada: Towards a critical historiography." ''Acadiensis'' (1988) 28#1 pp.&nbsp;103–126 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30303243 in JSTOR]; [http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/acadiensis/article/view/10835/11649 also online]
* Cox, Howard and Simon Mowatt. ''Revolutions from Grub Street: A History of Magazine Publishing in Britain'' (2015) [https://www.amazon.com/Revolutions-Grub-Street-Magazine-Publishing/dp/0198755457/ excerpt]
* Würgler, Andreas. [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012112605 ''National and Transnational News Distribution 1400–1800''], [[European History Online]], Mainz: [[Institute of European History]] (2010) retrieved: 17 December 2012.
 
===United States===
* [[Baughman, James L.]] ''Henry R. Luce and the Rise of the American News Media'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0801867169 excerpt and text search]
* Brinkley, Alan. ''The Publisher: Henry Luce and His American Century'', Alfred A. Knopf (2010) 531 pp.
** [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/20/books/20book.html "A Magazine Master Builder"] Book review by [[Janet Maslin]], ''The New York Times'', 19 April 2010
* Damon-Moore, Helen. ''Magazines for the Millions: Gender and Commerce in the Ladies' Home Journal and the Saturday Evening Post, 1880–1910'' (1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/102491415/magazines-for-the-millions-gender-and-commerce-in online]
* Elson, Robert T. ''Time Inc: The Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise, 1923–1941'' (1968); vol. 2: ''The World of Time Inc.: The Intimate History, 1941–1960'' (1973), official corporate history
* Endres, Kathleen L. and Therese L. Lueck, eds. ''Women's Periodicals in the United States: Consumer Magazines'' (1995) [https://www.questia.com/library/3425396/women-s-periodicals-in-the-united-states-consumer online]
* Haveman, Heather A. ''Magazines and the Making of America: Modernization, Community, and Print Culture, 1741–1860'' (Princeton UP, 2015)
* Johnson, Ronald Maberry and Abby Arthur Johnson. ''Propaganda and Aesthetics: The Literary Politics of Afro-American Magazines in the Twentieth Century'' (1979) [https://www.questia.com/library/1991169/propaganda-and-aesthetics-the-literary-politics-of online]
* Mott, Frank Luther. ''A History of American Magazines'' (five volumes, 1930–1968), detailed coverage of all major magazines, 1741 to 1930 by a leading scholar.
* Nourie, Alan and Barbara Nourie. ''American Mass-Market Magazines'' (Greenwood Press, 1990) [https://www.questia.com/library/87284345/american-mass-market-magazines online]
* Rooks, Noliwe M. ''Ladies' Pages: African American Women's Magazines and the Culture That Made Them'' (Rutgers UP, 2004) [https://www.questia.com/library/120090273/ladies-pages-african-american-women-s-magazines online]
* Summer, David E. ''The Magazine Century: American Magazines Since 1900'' (Peter Lang Publishing; 2010) 242 pages. Examines the rapid growth of magazines throughout the 20th century and analyzes the form's current decline.
* Tebbel, John, and Mary Ellen Zuckerman. ''The Magazine in America, 1741–1990'' (1991), popular history
* Wood, James P. ''Magazines in the United States: Their Social and Economic Influence'' (1949) [https://www.questia.com/library/393437/magazines-in-the-united-states-their-social-and-economic online]
* Zuckerman, Mary Ellen. ''A History of Popular Women's Magazines in the United States, 1792–1995'' (Greenwood Press, 1998) [https://www.questia.com/library/3772249/a-history-of-popular-women-s-magazines-in-the-united online]
 
{{refend}}
 
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*{{Commons category-inline|Magazines}}
*{{Wiktionary-inline|magazine|periodical|journal}}
* {{IA|magazine_rack|The Magazine Rack Collection}}
* {{curlie|Arts/Magazines_and_E-zines/}}
 
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