Χρήστης:Bertlolt/αμμοδοχείο

=== Musical language === ====Rhythm and groove==== The heavy metal main groove is characterized by short, two-note or three-note rhythmic figures—generally made up of [[eighth note|8th]] or [[sixteenth note|16th notes]]—in [[staccato]] thanks to palm-muted technique on the rhythm guitar.<ref>"Master of Rhythm, the Importance of Tone and Right-hand Technique" ''Guitar Legends'', April 1997, p. 99</ref> Heavy metal thus often involves the use of dynamic and off-handed rhythmic patterns thanks to the adjunction of brief, abrupt rhythmic cells. However, heavy metal may also employ long rhythmic figures such as the [[whole note]] that let the chords ring, particularly in slow-tempo songs such as ballads, or to add ambience and texture with one guitarist letting a chord ring while another plays faster passages. ''' ====Chords==== One of the signatures of the genre is the guitar [[power chord]].<ref>Walser (1993), p. 2</ref> In technical terms, the power chord is relatively simple: it involves just one main [[interval]], generally the [[perfect fifth]], though an [[octave]] may be added as a doubling of the [[root]]. Other types of power chords are also used: often the traditional perfect fifth is replaced by a different interval such as the [[Perfect fourth|fourth]], the [[minor third]]/-[[major third]], the [[diminished fifth]], and the [[minor sixth]].<ref>"Shaping Up and Riffing Out: Using Major and Minor Power Chords to Add Colour to Your Parts," ''Guitar Legends'', April 1997, p. 97</ref> The power chord makes possible a high level of distortion without unintended [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]]. Various power chords can also be played with a consistent finger arrangement that slides easily up and down the [[fingerboard|fretboard]].<ref>Schonbrun (2006), p. 22</ref> [[Image:Addicted to chaos transcirption and analysis.jpg|820px|thumb|center|The main riff from [[Megadeth]]'s "Addicted to Chaos" is an example of a heavy metal riff incorporating several types of [[power chord]]s]] ==== Typical harmonic relationships==== Heavy metal is usually [[riff]]-based. Riffs are frequently created with three main harmonic traits: modal scales progressions, tritone and chromatic progressions, and the use of pedal point. '''Modal harmony''' [[Image:Btl transcription and harmonic analysis.nwc.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Example of a typical heavy metal [[Aeolian mode|aeolian]] harmonic progression in I-VI-VII (Am-F-G): the main riff of [[Judas Priest]]'s "[[Breaking the Law]]"]] Traditional heavy metal tends to employ modal scales, in particular the [[Aeolian mode|Aeolian]] and [[Phrygian mode]]s.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 46</ref> Harmonically speaking, this means the genre typically incorporates modal chord progressions such as I-VI-VII, I-VII-(VI), I-VI-IV-VII, or I-minor V-I. Examples include Judas Priest's "[[Breaking the Law]]," Iron Maiden's "Hallowed be Thy Name," and [[Accept]]'s "Princess of the Dawn," each employing a I-VI-VII progression as its main riff. '''Tritone and chromatism''' [[Image:Black sabbath- transcription by Frederick Duhautpas.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Example of a harmonic progression with the tritone G-C#: the main riff of "[[Black Sabbath (song)|Black Sabbath]]"]] A trademark of many heavy metal subgenres is the use of tense harmony, such as [[chromatic]] or [[tritone]] relationships.<ref>Marshall, Wolf. "Power Lord—Climbing Chords, Evil Tritones, Giant Callouses," ''Guitar Legends'', April 1997, p. 29</ref><ref name="MH">Dunn, Sam (2005). "[http://www.metalhistory.com Metal: A Headbanger's Journey]". Warner Home Video (2006). Retrieved on [[March 19]], [[2007]].</ref> The tritone, an interval spanning three whole tones—such as C and F#—is one of the fundamental expressions of dissonance in Western music. The tritone was banned from medieval ecclesiastical singing because of its dissonant quality, which led monks to call it ''diabolus in musica''—"the devil in music." Because of that original symbolic association, it came to be heard in Western cultural convention as “evil.” Today the interval continues to suggest an "oppressive," "scary," or "evil" sound. Heavy metal has made extensive use of ''diabolus in musica'' because of these connotative qualities; it is frequently used in guitar solos and riffs, for example at the beginning of "[[Black Sabbath (song)|Black Sabbath]]," the lead song on the band's debut album. '''Pedal point''' Heavy metal often makes extensive use of [[pedal point]] as a harmonic basis. A pedal point is a sustained tone, typically in the bass range, during which at least one foreign (i.e., dissonant) harmony is sounded in the other parts.<ref>Kennedy (1985), "Pedal Point," p. 540</ref> Heavy metal riffs are frequently constructed over a persistent repeating note played on the low strings of the bass or rhythmic guitar, most usually on the E, A, and D strings.<ref>In black metal, however, pedal point is seldom a component of the guitar riff itself, but is rather played in the background by the bass.</ref> In other words, a single bass note—most frequently low E or A—is persistently repeated while some differents chords are successively played, including chords that don't normally incorporate that bass note. An example is the opening riff of Judas Priest's "[[You've Got Another Thing Comin']]." In this case, one guitar plays the pedal point in F#, while the second guitar plays the chords. ==== Classical influence ==== The appropriation of "classical" music by heavy metal typically involves musical elements associated with [[Baroque]], [[Romantic music|Romantic]], and [[Modernist (music)|Modernist]] composers such as [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], [[Niccolò Paganini]], [[Richard Wagner]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], [[Béla Bartók]], and [[Igor Stravinsky]]. The tritone, for instance, was already exploited for its dark, anguished connotations by Romantics like [[Franz Liszt]] and 20th-century classical composers such as Bartók, Stravinsky, and [[Arnold Schoenberg]]. [[Deep Purple]]/[[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]] guitarist [[Ritchie Blackmore]] began experimenting with musical figurations borrowed from classical music in the early 1970s. In the 1980s, guitarists [[Randy Rhoads]] and [[Uli Jon Roth]] looked to the early 18th century for models of speed and technique. [[Yngwie Malmsteen]], drawing from similar roots, has inspired a myriad of neoclassical metal players including [[Michael Romeo]], [[Michael Angelo Batio]], and [[Tony MacAlpine]]. Though many metal musicians have cited classical composers as inspiration, heavy metal—both aesthetically and socially—ultimately has little in common with classical music. Many specialists and critics have observed that heavy metal musicians often focus on and borrow superficial aspects of classical music, including [[motif (music)|motifs]], melodies, and scales. However, heavy metal bands, including neoclassical and progressive metal bands, generally do not try to exploit the compositional depth and complexity of classical music. Players who cite Bach as an influence, for example, seldom make use of the complex [[counterpoint]] that is central to the composer's work. The extensive use of power chords in heavy metal—implying countless [[consecutive fifths]]—and the associated use of octave doubling violate rules of harmony at the heart of the classical aesthetic.<ref>Arnold (1983), p. 476; Sadie (1980), p. 666; Kennedy (1985), "Consecutive," p. 159</ref> Historical classical music's true descendent is [[contemporary classical music]]. In sum, classical music is [[erudite music]] whereas heavy metal is [[popular music]].<ref>See, e.g., Cook and Dibben (2001): "Analyses of popular music also sometimes reveal the influence of 'art traditions.' An example is Walser’s linkage of heavy metal music with the ideologies and even some of the performance practices of nineteenth-century Romanticism. However, it would be clearly wrong to claim that traditions such as blues, rock, heavy metal, rap or dance music derive primarily from '[[art music]]' (p. 56)."</ref> === Themes === Common themes in heavy metal lyrics are sex, violence, fantasy, and the occult. The sexual nature of many heavy metal lyrics, ranging from Led Zeppelin's to those of latter-day nu metal bands, derives from the genre's roots in blues music.<ref>Weinstein (1991), p. 36</ref> Heavy metal songs often feature outlandish, fantasy-inspired lyrics, lending them an escapist quality. Iron Maiden's songs, for instance, were frequently inspired by mythology, fiction, and poetry, such as "[[Rime of the Ancient Mariner (song)|Rime of the Ancient Mariner]]," based on the [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] [[Rime of the Ancient Mariner|poem]]. Other examples include Black Sabbath's "Fairies Wear Boots" and "The Wizard," [[Megadeth]]'s "The Conjuring" and "Five Magics," and Judas Priest's "Dreamer Deceiver." Other artists base their lyrics on war, nuclear annihilation, environmental issues, and political or religious propaganda. Examples include Black Sabbath's "[[War Pigs (song)|War Pigs]]," [[Ozzy Osbourne]]'s "Killer of Giants," Metallica's ''[[...And Justice for All (album)|...And Justice for All]]'', Iron Maiden's "[[2 Minutes to Midnight]]" and "[[For the Greater Good of God]]," Accept's "[[Balls to the Wall]]," and Megadeth's "[[Peace Sells]]." Death is a predominant theme in heavy metal, routinely featuring in the lyrics of such different bands as Black Sabbath, [[Slayer]], and [[W.A.S.P.]] As with much popular music, visual imagery plays a large role in heavy metal. A heavy metal band's "image" is associated with the thematic content of their lyrics, and is expressed in album sleeve art, stage sets, the clothes of the band, and even band logos, as well as the sound of the music.<ref>Weinstein (1991), p. 27</ref> The thematic content of heavy metal has long been a target of criticism. Music critics have often deemed metal lyrics and imagery banal, and others have objected to what they see as advocacy of [[misogyny]] and the occult. During the 1980s, the [[Parents Music Resource Center]] petitioned the U.S. Congress to regulate the popular music industry due to objectionable lyrics, particularly those in heavy metal songs. === Physical gestures === Certain body movements are widely performed at heavy metal concerts, including [[headbanging]], [[mosh]]ing, and various hand gestures such as the infamous [[devil horns]], popularized by vocalist [[Ronnie James Dio]] while with Black Sabbath and [[Dio]].<ref name="MH"/> [[Gene Simmons]] of [[Kiss (band)|Kiss]] claims to have been the first to make the gesture in concert.<ref>Appleford, Steve. "[http://www.mk-magazine.com/news/archives/000929.php Odyssey of the Devil Horns]". ''MK Magazine'', [[September 9]], [[2004]]. Retrieved on [[March 31]], [[2007]].</ref> [[Stage diving]], [[air guitar]], and [[crowd surfing]] are also practiced. == Origin of the term ''heavy metal''== The origin of the term ''heavy metal'' in a musical context is uncertain. The phrase has been used for centuries in chemistry and metallurgy, as shown by citations in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''. An early use of the term in modern popular culture was by [[counterculture|countercultural]] writer [[William S. Burroughs]]. His 1962 novel ''[[The Soft Machine]]'' includes a character known as "Uranian Willy, the Heavy Metal Kid." Burroughs's next novel, ''[[Nova Express]]'' (1964), develops the theme, using ''heavy metal'' as a metaphor for addictive drugs: "With their diseases and orgasm drugs and their sexless parasite life forms—Heavy Metal People of Uranus wrapped in cool blue mist of vaporized bank notes—And The Insect People of Minraud with metal music."<ref>[[William S. Burroughs|Burroughs, William S]]. "[http://www.efn.org/~dredmond/PP3.html Nova Express]". New York: Grove Press, 1964. Pg. 112</ref> [[Image:Jimi Hendrix Exp..jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Jimi Hendrix]] was a central figure in the development of hard rock in the 1960s, paving the way for heavy metal.]] Metal historian [[Ian Christe]] describes what the components of the term mean in "hippiespeak": "heavy" is roughly synonymous with "potent" or "profound," and "metal" designates a certain type of mood, grinding and weighted as with metal.<ref>Christe (2003), p. 10</ref> The word "heavy" in this sense was a basic element of [[beatnik]] and later countercultural [[slang]], and references to "heavy music"—typically slower, more amplified variations of standard pop fare—were already common by the mid-1960s. [[Iron Butterfly]]'s debut album, released in early 1968, was titled ''[[Heavy (album)|Heavy]]''. The first recorded use of ''heavy metal'' in a song lyric is in [[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]]'s "[[Born to Be Wild]]," also released that year:<ref>Walser (1993), p. 8</ref> "I like smoke and lightning/Heavy metal thunder/Racin' with the wind/And the feelin' that I'm under." A late, and disputed, claim about the source of the term was made by [[Chas Chandler|"Chas" Chandler]], former manager of the [[Jimi Hendrix Experience]]. In a 1995 interview on the [[PBS]] program ''Rock and Roll'', he asserted that heavy metal "was a term originated in a ''New York Times'' article reviewing a [[Jimi Hendrix]] performance," in which the author likened the event to "listening to heavy metal falling from the sky." The specific source for Chandler's claim has never been found. The first documented usage of the term to describe a musical style is in a May 1971 ''[[Creem]]'' review by Mike Saunders of [[Sir Lord Baltimore]]'s ''[[Kingdom Come (Sir Lord Baltimore album)|Kingdom Come]]'': "Sir Lord Baltimore seems to have down pat most all the best heavy metal tricks in the book."<ref>{{cite web|title=Sir Lord Baltimore's "Kingdom Come" (review)|author=Saunders, Mike|publisher=''[[Creem Magazine]]''|date=|url=http://www.creemmagazine.com/_site/BeatGoesOn/SirLordBaltimore/KingdomCome001.html|accessdate=March 17, 2007}}</ref> ''Creem'' critic [[Lester Bangs]] is credited with popularizing the term via his early 1970s essays on bands such as Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath.<ref>Weinstein (1991), p.19</ref> "Heavy metal" may have initially been used as a jibe by a number of music critics, but it was quickly adopted by fans of the style. The terms "heavy metal" and "hard rock" have often been used interchangeably, particularly in discussing bands of the 1970s, a period when the terms were largely synonymous.<ref>Du Noyer (2003), pp. 96, 78</ref> For example, according to an entry in the 1983 ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' encyclopedia, "known for its aggressive blues-based hard-rock style, [[Aerosmith]] was the top American heavy-metal band of the mid-Seventies."<ref>Pareles and Romanowski (1983), p. 4</ref> Few would now characterize Aerosmith's classic sound, with its clear links to traditional [[rock and roll]], as "heavy metal." Even some acts closely identified with the emergence of the genre, such as Led Zeppelin and Deep Purple, are not considered heavy metal bands by some in the present-day metal community. == History == === Pre-history (mid-1960s) === American [[blues music]] was a major influence on the early British rockers. Bands like [[The Rolling Stones]] and [[The Yardbirds]] recorded covers of many classic blues songs, using [[electric guitar]] where many of the originals had used [[Steel-string guitar|acoustic]] and sometimes speeding up the [[tempo]]. As they experimented with the music, the UK blues-based bands—and the U.S. acts they influenced in turn—developed what would become the hallmarks of heavy metal: At the core was a loud, distorted guitar style, built around power chords.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 9</ref> [[The Kinks]] played a major role in popularizing this sound with their 1964 hit "[[You Really Got Me]]."<ref>Weinstein (1991), p. 18; Walser (1993), p. 9</ref> A significant contributor to the emerging guitar sound was the [[feedback]] facilitated by the new generation of amplifiers. In addition to The Kinks' [[Dave Davies]], other guitarists such as [[The Who]]'s [[Pete Townshend]] and the Tridents' [[Jeff Beck]] were experimenting with feedback.<ref>Wilkerson (2006), p. 19.</ref> Where the blues-rock drumming style started out largely as simple shuffle beats on small kits, drummers began using a more muscular, complex, and amplified approach to match and be heard against the increasingly loud guitar.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 10</ref> Vocalists similarly modified their technique and increased their reliance on amplification, often becoming more stylized and dramatic. In terms of sheer volume, especially in live performance, The Who's "bigger-louder-wall-of-[[Marshall Amplification#Marshall Stack|Marshall]]'s" approach was seminal.<ref>McMichael (2004), p. 112</ref> Simultaneous advances in amplification and recording technology made it possible to successfully capture the power of this heavier approach on record. The combination of blues-rock with psychedelic rock formed much of the original basis for heavy metal.<ref>Weinstein (1991), p. 16</ref> One of the most influential bands in forging the merger of genres was the power trio [[Cream (band)|Cream]], who derived a massive, heavy sound from [[unison]] riffing between guitarist [[Eric Clapton]] and bassist [[Jack Bruce]], as well as [[Ginger Baker]]'s double bass drumming.<ref>Charlton (2003), pp. 232–33</ref> Their first two LPs, ''[[Fresh Cream]]'' (1966) and ''[[Disraeli Gears]]'' (1967) are regarded as essential prototypes for the future style. The Jimi Hendrix Experience's debut album, ''[[Are You Experienced (album)|Are You Experienced]]'' (1967), was also highly influential. Hendrix's virtuosic technique would be emulated by many metal guitarists and the album's most successful single, "[[Purple Haze]]," is identified by some as the first heavy metal hit.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 9</ref> === Origins and early popularity (late 1960s and early 1970s) === [[Image:Zep Paris.JPG|left|thumb|180px|[[Led Zeppelin]] performing in Paris in 1969.]] In 1968, the sound that would become known as heavy metal began to coalesce. Many scholars and fans point to [[Blue Cheer]]'s cover of [[Eddie Cochran]]'s classic "[[Summertime Blues]]," released in January 1968, as the first true heavy metal song.<ref>Pozo, Carlos M. "[http://www.furious.com/PERFECT/bluecheer.html Caucasion Power Blues]". Furious.com, August 1999. Retrieved on [[March 21]], [[2007]].</ref> In July, three epochal records came out: Steppenwolf's "[[Born to Be Wild]]," with its "heavy metal" lyric; The Yardbirds' "Think About It"—B-side of the band's last single—with a performance by guitarist [[Jimmy Page]] anticipating the metal sound he would soon make famous; and [[Iron Butterfly]]'s ''[[In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida (album)|In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida]]'', with its 17-minute-long [[In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida (song)|title track]], a prime candidate for first-ever heavy metal album. In August, [[The Beatles]]' single version of "[[Revolution (song)|Revolution]]," with its redlined guitar and drum sound, set new standards for distortion in a top-selling context. The [[Jeff Beck Group]], whose leader had preceded Page as The Yardbirds' guitarist, released its debut record that same month: ''[[Truth (album)|Truth]]'' is another candidate for first heavy metal album.<ref>Shade, Will. "[http://www.furious.com/PERFECT/yardbirds2.html Jimmy Page's Dubious Recording Legacy]" Furious.com. Retrieved on [[March 21]], [[2007]].</ref> In October, Page's new band, [[Led Zeppelin]], made its live debut. In November, [[Love Sculpture]], with guitarist [[Dave Edmunds]], put out ''Blues Helping'', featuring a pounding, aggressive version of [[Khachaturian]]'s "[[Sabre Dance]]." The Beatles' so-called ''[[The Beatles (album)|White Album]]'', which also came out that month, included "[[Helter Skelter]]," one of the heaviest-sounding songs ever released by a major band.<ref>Blake (1997), p. 143</ref> In January 1969, Led Zeppelin's [[Led Zeppelin (album)|self-titled debut album]] was released and reached number 10 on the ''[[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]'' album chart. In July, Zeppelin and a power trio with a Cream-inspired, but cruder sound, [[Grand Funk Railroad]], played the [[Atlanta International Pop Festival (1969)|Atlanta Pop Festival]]. The following month, another Cream-rooted power trio, [[Mountain (band)|Mountain]], played an hour-long set at the [[Woodstock Festival]].<ref>Though often identified now as "hard rock," the band's debut album, ''Mountain Climbing'' (1970), placed 85th on the list of "Top 100 Metal Albums" compiled by ''[[Hit Parader]]'' in 1989. Grand Funk Railroad's ''Survival'' (1971) placed 72nd (Walser [1993], p. 174).</ref> In the fall, ''[[Led Zeppelin II]]'' went to number 1 and the album's single "[[Whole Lotta Love]]" hit number 4 on the ''Billboard'' pop chart. The metal revolution was under way. {{Sound sample box align right|Music samples:}} {{Listen |filename=Led Zeppelin Whole Lotta Love.ogg |title="Whole Lotta Love" |description=Sample of "[[Whole Lotta Love]]" by [[Led Zeppelin]], from ''[[Led Zeppelin II]]'' (1969). The heavy riff-based song, using lyrics culled from blues songwriter [[Willie Dixon]], reached number four on the ''Billboard'' charts.<ref>{{cite web | title=Whole Lotta Love | publisher = RollingStone.com | date=[[2003]] | url=http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/6595920/whole_lotta_love | accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref> |format=[[Ogg]]}} {{sample box end}} Led Zeppelin defined central aspects of the emerging genre, with Page's highly distorted guitar style and singer [[Robert Plant]]'s dramatic, wailing vocals.<ref>Charlton (2003), p. 239</ref> Other bands, with a more consistently heavy, "purely" metal sound, would prove equally important in codifying the genre. The 1970 releases by [[Black Sabbath]] (''[[Black Sabbath (album)|Black Sabbath]]'' and ''[[Paranoid (album)|Paranoid]]'') and [[Deep Purple]] (''[[Deep Purple in Rock]]'') were crucial in this regard.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 10</ref> Black Sabbath had developed a particularly heavy sound in part due to an industrial accident guitarist [[Tony Iommi]] suffered before cofounding the band. Unable to play normally, Iommi had to tune his guitar down for easier fretting and rely on power chords with their relatively simple fingering.<ref>di Perna, Alan. "The History of Hard Rock: The 70's." ''Guitar World''. March 2001.</ref> Deep Purple had fluctuated between styles in its early years, but by 1969 vocalist [[Ian Gillan]] and guitarist [[Ritchie Blackmore]] had led the band toward the developing heavy metal style.<ref>Charlton (2003), p. 241</ref> In 1970, Black Sabbath and Deep Purple scored major UK chart hits with "[[Paranoid (song)|Paranoid]]" and "[[Black Night]]," respectively. That same year, three other British bands released debut albums in a heavy metal mode: [[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]] with ''[[Very 'eavy... Very 'umble]]'', [[UFO (band)|UFO]] with ''[[Unidentified Flying Object (album)|UFO 1]]'', and [[Black Widow (band)|Black Widow]] with ''Sacrifice''. [[Wishbone Ash]], though not commonly identified as metal, introduced a dual-lead/rhythm-guitar style that many metal bands of the following generation would adopt. The occult lyrics and imagery employed by Black Sabbath, Uriah Heep, and Black Widow would prove particularly influential; Led Zeppelin also began foregrounding such elements with its [[Led Zeppelin IV|fourth album]], released in 1971. [[Image:BlackSabbath19720012200.sized.jpg|left|thumb|180px|[[Tony Iommi]] and [[Ozzy Osbourne]] of [[Black Sabbath]] onstage in 1973.]] On the other side of the Atlantic, the trend-setting group was Grand Funk Railroad, "the most commercially successful American heavy-metal band from 1970 until they disbanded in 1976, [they] established the Seventies success formula: continuous touring."<ref>Pareles and Romanowski (1983), p. 225</ref> Other bands identified with metal emerged in the U.S., such as [[Dust (band)|Dust]] (first LP in 1971), [[Blue Öyster Cult]] ([[Blue Öyster Cult (album)|1972]]), and [[Kiss (band)|Kiss]] ([[Kiss (album)|1974]]). In Germany, the [[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]] debuted with ''[[Lonesome Crow]]'' in 1972. Blackmore, who had emerged as a virtuoso soloist with Deep Purple's ''[[Machine Head]]'' (1972), quit the group in 1975 to found [[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]]. These bands also built audiences via constant touring and increasingly elaborate stage shows.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 10</ref> As described above, there are arguments about whether these and other early bands truly qualify as "heavy metal" or simply as "hard rock." Those closer to the music's blues roots or placing greater emphasis on melody are now commonly ascribed the latter label. [[AC/DC]], which debuted with ''[[High Voltage (Australian album)|High Voltage]]'' in 1975, is a prime example. The 1983 ''Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll'' entry begins "Australian heavy-metal band AC/DC..."<ref>Pareles and Romanowski (1983), p. 1</ref> Rock historian Clinton Walker writes, "Calling AC/DC a heavy metal band in the seventies was as inaccurate as it is today.... [They] were a rock'n'roll band that just happened to be heavy enough for metal."<ref>Walker (2001), p. 297</ref> The issue is not only one of shifting definitions, but also a persistent distinction between musical style and audience identification: Ian Christe describes how the band "became the stepping-stone that led huge numbers of hard rock fans into heavy metal perdition."<ref>Christe (2003), p. 54</ref> In certain cases, there is little debate. After Black Sabbath, the next major example is Britain's [[Judas Priest]], which debuted with ''[[Rocka Rolla]]'' in 1974. In Christe's description, Black Sabbath's <blockquote> audience was...left to scavenge for sounds with similar impact. By the mid-1970s, heavy metal aesthetic could be spotted, like a mythical beast, in the moody bass and complex dual guitars of [[Thin Lizzy]], in the stagecraft of [[Alice Cooper]], in the sizzling guitar and showy vocals of [[Queen (band)|Queen]], and in the thundering medieval questions of Rainbow.... Judas Priest arrived to unify and amplify these diverse highlights from hard rock's sonic palette. For the first time, heavy metal became a true genre unto itself.<ref>Christe (2003), pp. 19–20</ref> </blockquote> Though Judas Priest did not have a top 40 album in the U.S. until 1980, for many it was the definitive post-Sabbath heavy metal band; its twin-guitar attack, featuring rapid tempos and a nonbluesy, more cleanly metallic sound, was a major influence on later acts.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 6</ref> While heavy metal was growing in popularity, most critics were not enamored of the music. Objections were raised to metal's adoption of visual spectacle and other trappings of commercial artifice,<ref>Walser (1993), p. 11</ref> but the main offense was its perceived musical and lyrical vacuity: reviewing a Black Sabbath album in the early 1970s, leading critic [[Robert Christgau]] described it as "dull and decadent...dim-witted, amoral exploitation."<ref>Christgau (1981), p. 49</ref> === Mainstream dominance (late 1970s and 1980s) === [[Image:Motorhead.jpg|thumb|right|160px|[[Motörhead]]'s [[Motörhead (album)|debut album]] came out in 1977, the same year that [[punk rock|punk]] broke in the UK.]] [[Punk rock]] emerged in the mid-1970s as a reaction against contemporary social conditions as well as the overindulgent rock music of the time, including heavy metal. Sales of heavy metal records declined sharply in the late 1970s in the face of punk, [[disco]], and more mainstream rock.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 11</ref> With the major labels fixated on punk, many newer British heavy metal bands were inspired by the movement's high-energy sound and do-it-yourself ethos, putting out releases independently to small, devoted audiences.<ref>Christe (2003), pp. 30, 33</ref> British music papers such as the ''[[NME]]'' and ''[[Sounds (magazine)|Sounds]]'' began to take notice, with ''Sounds'' writer Geoff Barton christening the movement the "[[New Wave of British Heavy Metal]]."<ref>Christe (2003), p. 33</ref> NWOBHM bands including [[Iron Maiden]], [[Motörhead]], [[Saxon (band)|Saxon]], [[Diamond Head (band)|Diamond Head]], and [[Def Leppard]] reenergized the heavy metal genre. Following Judas Priest's lead, they toughened up the sound, reduced its blues elements, and emphasized increasingly fast tempos.<ref>{{cite web|title=Judas Priest|author=Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Greg Prato|publisher=''[[All Music Guide]]''|date=|url=http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&searchlink=JUDAS|PRIEST&sql=11:kifrxqe5ldse~T1|accessdate=April 30, 2007}}; {{cite web|title=Genre - New Wave of British Heavy Metal|author=|publisher=''[[All Music Guide]]''|date=|url=http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=77:7760|accessdate=March 17, 2007}}</ref> In 1980, NWOBHM broke into the mainstream, as albums by Iron Maiden, Motörhead, and Saxon reached the British top 10. The next year, Motörhead became the first band in the movement to top the UK charts with ''[[No Sleep 'til Hammersmith]]''. Other NWOBHM bands, such as Diamond Head and [[Venom (band)|Venom]], though less successsful would also have a significant influence on metal's development.<ref>Weinstein (1991), p. 44</ref> The first generation of metal bands was ceding the limelight. Deep Purple had broken up soon after Blackmore's departure in 1975, and Led Zeppelin folded in 1980. Black Sabbath was routinely upstaged in concert by its opening act, the [[Los Angeles]] band [[Van Halen]].<ref>Christe (2003), p. 25</ref> [[Eddie Van Halen]] established himself as one of the leading metal guitar virtuosos of the era—his solo on "[[Eruption (song)|Eruption]]," from the band's [[Van Halen (album)|self-titled 1978 album]], is considered a milestone.<ref>Christe (2003), p. 51</ref> [[Randy Rhoads]] and [[Yngwie J. Malmsteen]] also became famed virtuosos, associated with what would be known as the [[neoclassical metal]] style. The adoption of classical elements had been spearheaded by Blackmore and the Scorpions' [[Uli Jon Roth]]; this next generation progressed to occasionally using classical nylon-stringed guitars, as Rhoads does on "Dee" from former Sabbath lead singer [[Ozzy Osbourne]]'s first solo album, ''[[Blizzard of Ozz]]'' (1980). [[Image:Mötley Crüe Shout at the Devil.jpg|thumb|right|160px|[[Mötley Crüe]]'s second album, ''[[Shout at the Devil]]'' (1983), was one of the definitive glam metal records.]] Inspired by Van Halen's success, a metal scene began to develop in Southern California, particularly Los Angeles, during the late 1970s. Based around the clubs of L.A.'s [[Sunset Strip]], bands such as [[Quiet Riot]], [[Ratt]], [[Mötley Crüe]], and [[W.A.S.P.]] were influenced by traditional heavy metal of the earlier 1970s<ref>Rivadavia, Eduardo. "[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:6q1tk6rx9kr3 Quiet Riot]". All Music Guide. Retrieved on [[March 25]], [[2007]]; Neely, Kim "[http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ratt/albums/album/211449/review/5946112/detonator Ratt]". Rolling Stone. Retrieved on [[April 3]], [[2007]]; Barry Weber & Greg Prato. "[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:9yen97l7krrt Mötley Crüe]". All Music Guide. Retrieved on [[April 3]], [[2007]]; Dolas, Yiannis. "[http://www.rockpages.gr/interviews/wasp2004-en.htm Blackie Lawless Interview]" Rockpages. Retrieved on [[April 3]], [[2007]]</ref> and incorporated the theatrics (and sometimes makeup) of [[glam rock]] acts such as [[Alice Cooper]] and Kiss.<ref>Christe (2003), pp. 55–57</ref> These [[glam metal]] bands—along with similarly styled acts such as New York's [[Twisted Sister]]—became a major force in metal and the wider spectrum of rock music. In the wake of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal and Judas Priest's breakthrough ''[[British Steel]]'' (1980), heavy metal became increasingly popular in the early 1980s. Many metal artists benefited from the exposure they received on [[MTV]], which began airing in 1981—sales often soared if a band's videos screened on the channel.<ref>Christe (2003), p. 79</ref> Def Leppard's videos for ''[[Pyromania (album)|Pyromania]]'' (1983) made them superstars in America and Quiet Riot became the first domestic heavy metal band to top the ''Billboard'' chart with ''[[Metal Health]]'' (1983). One of the seminal events in metal's growing popularity was the 1983 [[US Festival]] in California, where the "heavy metal day" featuring Ozzy Osbourne, Van Halen, Scorpions, Mötley Crüe, Judas Priest, and others drew the largest audiences of the three-day event.<ref>Weinstein (1991), p. 45</ref> Between 1983 and 1984, heavy metal went from an 8 percent to a 20 percent share of all recordings sold in the U.S.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 12</ref> Several major professional magazines devoted to the genre were launched, including ''[[Kerrang!]]'' (in 1981) and ''[[Metal Hammer]]'' (in 1984), as well as a host of fan journals. In 1985, ''Billboard'' declared, "Metal has broadened its audience base. Metal music is no longer the exclusive domain of male teenagers. The metal audience has become older (college-aged), younger (pre-teen), and more female."<ref>Walser (1993), pp. 12–13, 182 n. 35</ref> {{Sound sample box align right|Music samples:}} {{Listen |filename=Iron Maiden Purgatory 29 second file.ogg |title="Purgatory" |description=Sample of "Purgatory" by [[Iron Maiden]], from the album ''[[Killers (Iron Maiden album)|Killers]]'' (1981). The early Iron Maiden sound was a mix of punk rock speed and heavy metal guitarwork typical of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal. |format=[[Ogg]]}} {{Listen |filename=Van Halen Hot for Teacher.ogg |title="Hot for Teacher" |description=Sample of "[[Hot for Teacher]]" by [[Van Halen]], from the album ''[[MCMLXXXIV]]'' (1984). The virtuosity of guitarist [[Eddie Van Halen]] was a touchstone of 1980s heavy metal. |format=[[Ogg]]}} {{sample box end}} By the mid-1980s, glam metal was a dominant presence on the U.S. charts, [[music television]], and the arena concert circuit. New bands including [[Poison (band)|Poison]] and [[New Jersey]]'s [[Bon Jovi]] became major draws, while Mötley Crüe and Ratt remained consistently successful. In 1987, MTV launched a show, ''[[Headbanger's Ball]]'', devoted exclusively to heavy metal videos. However, the metal audience had begun to factionalize, with those in many underground metal scenes favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular style as "lite metal" or "hair metal."<ref>Walser (1993), p. 14; Christe (2003), p. 170</ref> One band that reached diverse audiences was [[Guns N' Roses]]. In contrast to their glam metal contemporaries in L.A., they were seen as much rawer and more dangerous. With the release of their chart-topping ''[[Appetite for Destruction]]'' (1987), they "recharged and almost single-handedly sustained the Sunset Strip sleaze system for several years."<ref>Christe (2003), p. 165</ref> The following year, [[Jane's Addiction]] emerged from the same L.A. hard-rock club scene with its major label debut, ''[[Nothing's Shocking]]''. Reviewing the album, ''Rolling Stone'' declared, "as much as any band in existence, Jane's Addiction is the true heir to Led Zeppelin."<ref>{{cite web|title=Jane's Addiction: ''Nothing's Shocking''|author=Steve Pond|publisher=''Rolling Stone''|date=1988-10-20|url=http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/janesaddiction/albums/album/119704/review/5942383/nothings_shocking|accessdate=2007-05-01}}</ref> The group was one of the first to be identified with the "[[alternative metal]]" trend that would come to the fore in the next decade. === Underground metal (1980s, 1990s, and 2000s) === Many [[List of heavy metal genres|subgenres of heavy metal]] developed outside of the commercial mainstream during the 1980s.<ref>Weinstein (1991), p. 21</ref> Several attempts have been made to map the complex world of underground metal, most notably by the editors of [[Allmusic]], as well as critic [[Rockdetector|Garry Sharpe-Young]]. Sharpe-Young's multivolume metal encyclopedia separates the underground into five major categories: [[thrash metal]], [[death metal]], [[black metal]], [[power metal]], and, lastly, the related subgenres of [[doom metal|doom]] and [[gothic metal]]. ===== Thrash metal ===== :''For more details on this topic, see [[Thrash metal]]'' [[Image:Reign in blood.jpg|130px|thumb|left| [[Slayer]]'s ''[[Reign in Blood]]'' (1986) was a landmark thrash metal album]] Thrash metal emerged in the early 1980s under the influence of [[hardcore punk]] and the New Wave of British Heavy Metal,<ref name="Genre - Thrash Metal">"[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=77:373 Genre - Thrash Metal]". [[All Music Guide]]. Retrieved on March 03, 2007.</ref> particularly songs in the revved-up style known as [[speed metal]]. The movement began in the United States, with the leading scene in the [[Bay Area thrash metal|San Francisco Bay Area]]. The sound developed by thrash groups was faster and more aggressive than that of the original metal bands and their glam metal successors.<ref name="Genre - Thrash Metal"/> Peter Steel of [[Type O Negative]] described thrash as a form of "urban blight music" and a palefaced cousin of rap.<ref>Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 26</ref> {{Sound sample box align right|Music sample:}} {{Listen |filename= Angel of Death clip.ogg |title="Angel of Death" (1986) |description=[[Slayer]]'s "[[Angel of Death (song)|Angel of Death]]", from ''[[Reign in Blood]]'' (1986), which features the fast, technically complex musicianship typical of thrash metal|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{sample box end}} The subgenre was popularized by the "Big Four of Thrash": [[Anthrax (band)|Anthrax]], [[Megadeth]], [[Metallica]], and [[Slayer]].<ref>Walser (1993), p.14</ref> Three German bands, [[Kreator]], [[Sodom (band)|Sodom]], and [[Destruction (band)|Destruction]], played a central role in bringing the style to Europe. Others, including San Francisco's [[Testament (band)|Testament]] and [[Exodus (band)|Exodus]], New Jersey's [[Overkill (band)|Overkill]], and Brazil's [[Sepultura]], also had a significant impact. While thrash began as an underground scene, and remained largely for that for almost a decade, the leading bands in the movement began to reach a wider audience. Metallica brought the sound into the top 40 of the ''Billboard'' album chart in 1986 with ''[[Master of Puppets]]''; two years later, the band's ''[[...And Justice for All]]'' hit number 6, while Megadeth and Anthrax had top 40 records.<ref>[http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.chartFormatGroupName=Albums&model.vnuArtistId=5199&model.vnuAlbumId=758988 Metallica - Artist Chart History]"; "[http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.chartFormatGroupName=Albums&model.vnuArtistId=5179&model.vnuAlbumId=933608 Megadeth - Artist Chart History]"; "[http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.chartFormatGroupName=Albums&model.vnuArtistId=3982&model.vnuAlbumId=728383 Anthrax - Artist Chart History]". Billboard.com. Retrieved on [[April 07]], [[2007]].</ref> Though less commercially successful than the rest of the Big Four, Slayer released one of the genre's definitive records: ''[[Reign in Blood]]'' (1986) was described by ''Kerrang!'' as the "heaviest album of all time."<ref name="Lostprophets scoop rock honours">{{cite web| title = Lostprophets scoop rock honours | publisher = [[BBC News]] | date = [[2006-08-25]]| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/5282780.stm| accessdate = 2007-01-10 }}</ref> Two decades later, ''Metal Hammer'' named it the best album of the preceding twenty years.<ref name="Golden Gods Awards Winners">{{cite web| title = Golden Gods Awards Winners| publisher = [[Metal Hammer]]| date = [[2006-06-13]]| url = http://www.metalhammer.co.uk/news/article/?id=44410| accessdate = 2007-01-10 }}</ref> Slayer attracted a following among far-right skinheads, and accusations of promoting violence and Nazi themes have dogged the band.<ref>Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 30; O'Neil (2001), p. 164</ref> In the early 1990s, thrash achieved breakout success, challenging and redefining the metal mainstream.<ref>Walser (1993), p. 15</ref> Metallica's [[Metallica (album)|self-titled 1991 album]] topped the ''Billboard'' chart, Megadeth's ''[[Countdown to Extinction]]'' (1992) hit number 2, Anthrax and Slayer cracked the top 10, and albums by regional bands such as Testament and Sepultura entered the top 100. ===== Death metal ===== :''For more details on this topic, see [[Death metal]]'' Thrash soon began to evolve and split into more extreme metal genres. According to Allmusic, Slayer's ''Reign in Blood'' "almost single-handedly inspired the entire death metal genre (at least on the American side of the Atlantic)."<ref>Huey, Steve. "[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:39fwxqu5ldje~T1 ''Reign in Blood'' – Review]." Allmusic.com. Retrieved [[April 08]], [[2007]].</ref> The NWOBHM band Venom was also an important progenitor. The death metal movement on both sides of the Atlantic adopted and emphasized the elements of blasphemy and diabolism employed by such acts. The term is thought to have originated with the song "Death Metal," from ''[[Seven Churches]]'' (1985), the debut album by Bay Area band [[Possessed (band)|Possessed]]. Death metal utilized the speed and aggression of both thrash and hardcore, fused with lyrics preoccupied with [[Z movie|Z-grade]] [[slasher film|slasher movie]] violence and [[Satanism]].<ref name="LOC27">Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 27</ref> Death metal vocals are typically bleak, involving guttural "[[death grunt]]s," high-pitched screaming, and other uncommon techniques.<ref name="Genre - Death Metal/Black Metal">"[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=77:384 Genre - Death Metal/Black Metal]". [[All Music Guide]]. Retrieved on [[February 27]], [[2007]].</ref> Complimenting the deep, aggressive vocal style are downtuned, highly [[distortion (guitar)|distorted]] guitars<ref name="LOC27"/> and extremely fast percussion, often with rapid [[bass drum|double bass]] drumming, [[blast beats]], and syncopation. Frequent tempo and time signature changes are typical. {{Sound sample box align right|Music sample:}} {{listen|filename=Obituary Suffocation.ogg|title=Suffocation |description="Suffocation"" by [[Obituary (band)|Obituary]] from the album ''[[Slowly We Rot]]'' (1989).| format=[[Ogg]]}}{{sample box end}}  Death metal generally rejected the theatrics of earlier metal styles, opting instead for an everyday look of ripped jeans and plain leather jackets.<ref name="MS28">Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 28</ref> One major exception to this rule was [[Deicide (band)|Deicide]]'s [[Glen Benton]], who branded an inverted cross on his forehead and wore armor on stage. [[Morbid Angel]] adopted [[neo-fascist]] imagery.<ref name="MS28"/> These two bands, along with [[Death]] and [[Obituary (band)|Obituary]], were leaders of the major death metal scene that emerged in Florida in the mid-1980s. In the UK, the closely related style of [[grindcore]], led by bands such as [[Napalm Death]] and [[Extreme Noise Terror]], emerged out of the [[anarcho-punk]] movement.<ref>Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 27</ref> A large [[Scandinavian death metal]] scene, with bands such as Sweden's [[Entombed (band)|Entombed]] and [[Dismember (band)|Dismember]], began to develop as well. Out of this evolved a [[melodic death metal]] sound, typified by Swedish bands such as [[Dark Tranquility]] and [[At the Gates]]. By the 1990s, American [[technical death metal]] bands such as [[Atheist (band)|Atheist]] and [[Cynic (band)|Cynic]] were showcasing astonishing levels of guitar speed and technicality. ===== Black metal ===== :''For more details on this topic, see [[Black metal]]'' [[Image:Burzum aske.jpg|thumb|left|130px|Photo of the burned ruins of [[Fantoft stave church]] on [[Burzum]]'s 1992 EP ''[[Aske (album)|Aske]]''.]] The first wave of black metal emerged in Europe in the early and mid-1980s, led by Switzerland's [[Hellhammer]] and [[Celtic Frost]], and Sweden's [[Bathory (band)|Bathory]].<ref>[http://www.metalandhorrormovies.com/Bands/blackhis.htm] The History of Black Metal]</ref> By the late 1980s, a second wave, primarily Scandanavian, was given birth to by bands such as [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]], [[Burzum]], and [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]].<ref>[http://www.metalandhorrormovies.com/Bands/blackhis.htm] The History of Black Metal]</ref><ref>Christe (2003), p. 270</ref> Black metal varies considerably in style and production quality, although most bands emphasize shrieked and growled vocals, highly distorted guitars, and a "dark" atmosphere.<ref name="Genre - Death Metal/Black Metal"/> [[Darkthrone]] drummer [[Fenriz]] explains, "It had something to do with production, lyrics, the way they dressed and a commitment to making ugly, raw, grim stuff. There wasn't a generic sound."<ref name="Campion">Campion, Chris. "[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/omm/story/0,,1415240,00.html#article_continue In the face of death]". ''The Observer'' (UK), [[February 20]], [[2005]]. Retrieved on [[4 April]], [[2007]].</ref> Satanic themes are common in black metal, though many bands take inspiration from ancient [[paganism]], promoting a return to pre-Christian values.<ref>Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 212</ref> {{Sound sample box align right|Music sample:}} {{listen|filename=Mayhem De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas.ogg|title=De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas|description="De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas" by [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]] (1994). | format=[[Ogg]]}}{{sample box end}}  Even as Bathory inspired the [[Viking metal]] and [[folk metal]] movements, other bands in the Scandinavian black metal scene became associated with considerable violence in the early 1990s.<ref>Christe (2003), p. 276</ref> By 1990, Mayhem had begun to wear [[corpsepaint]] during concerts and band photo shoots. Mayhem and Burzum soon became mired in accusations of church burning and Satanism. By 1991, the rush by record labels to sign death metal bands created a backlash, and the underground shifted to support bands that resisted the co-option and dilution of their scenes.<ref>Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 31</ref> According to [[Gorgoroth (band)|Gorgoroth]] vocalist [[Gaahl]], "Black Metal was never meant to reach an audience.... [We] had a common enemy which was, of course, Christianity, socialism and everything that democracy stands for."<ref name="Campion"/> The 1993 murder of Mayhem's [[Euronymous]] by Burzum's [[Varg Vikernes]] brought worldwide attention to the scene.<ref>"[http://www.burzum.com/burzum/library/articles/high.html High Society Magazine]". burzum.com. Retrieved on [[March 19]], [[2007]].</ref> By 1992, black metal scenes had begun to emerge in areas outside Scandinavia, including Germany, France, and Poland.<ref>Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), pp. 271, 321, 326 </ref> Around 1996, when many in the scene felt the genre was stagnating,<ref>Vikernes, Varg. "[http://www.burzum.org/eng/library/a_burzum_story06.shtml A Burzum Story: Part VI - The Music ]". burzum.org, July 2005. Retrieved on [[April 04]], [[2007]].</ref><ref>"[http://www.anus.com/metal/about/metal/black_metal_death.html Is Black Metal Dead?]". ''Dark Legions Archive''. Retrieved on [[April 04]], [[2007]].</ref> several key bands, including Burzum and [[Beherit (band)|Beherit]], moved toward an [[dark ambient|ambient]] style, while [[symphonic black metal]] was explored by [[Tiamat (band)|Tiamat]] and Switzerland's [[Samael (band)|Samael]].<ref>[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=77:11957 Genre – Symphonic Black Metal]. Allmusic.com. Retrieved [[April 9]], [[2007]].</ref> Black metal is still widely played, and some argue that the genre has had a third wave. References to "third wave" black metal usually identify particular bands such as [[Dimmu Borgir]] and [[Old Man's Child]], although the term is sometimes applied to post-1996 bands in general. ===== Power metal ===== :''For more details on this topic, see [[Power metal]]'' [[Image:Hammerfall group.jpg|left|thumb|160px|[[HammerFall]], live in Milano, Italy, 2005.]] During the early 1990s, the power metal scene came together largely in reaction to the harshness of death and black metal.<ref name="Genre - Power Metal">"[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=77:11959 Genre - Power Metal]". [[All Music Guide]]. Retrieved on [[March 20]], [[2007]].</ref> Though a relatively underground style in North America, it enjoys wide popularity in Europe. Power metal focuses on upbeat, epic melodies and themes that "appeal to the listener's sense of valor and loveliness."<ref>Christe (2003), p. 372</ref> The prototype for the sound was established in the mid- to late 1980s by Germany's [[Helloween]], which combined the power riffs, melodic approach, and high-pitched, "clean" singing style of bands like Judas Priest and Iron Maiden with thrash's speed and energy, "crystalliz[ing] the sonic ingredients of what is now known as power metal."<ref>"[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&searchlink=HELLOWEEN&sql=11:difuxqe5ld0e~T1 Helloween - Biography]". [[All Music Guide]]. Retrieved on [[April 8]], [[2007]].</ref> New York's [[Manowar (band)|Manowar]] and [[Virgin Steele]] were pioneering American bands. [[Yngwie J. Malmsteen]]'s ''[[Rising Force]]'' (1984) was crucial in popularizing the ultrafast electric guitar style known as "[[shred guitar|shredding]]" as well as the merger of metal with [[neo-classical metal|classical music elements]], developments that have strongly influenced power metal. {{Sound sample box align right|Music sample:}} {{Listen |filename= Manowar Dark Avenger.ogg |title="Dark Avenger" (1982) |description=[[Manowar]]'s "Dark Avenger", from ''[[Battle Hymns (Manowar album)|Battle Hymns]]'' (1982)|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{sample box end}} Traditional power metal bands like Sweden's [[HammerFall]] and England's [[DragonForce]] have a sound relatively close to classic heavy metal. Many recent power metal bands such as Finland's [[Nightwish]], Italy's [[Rhapsody of Fire]], and Russia's [[Catharsis (Russian band)|Catharsis]] feature a keyboard-based [[Symphonic metal#Symphonic power metal|"symphonic" sound]], sometimes employing orchestras and opera singers. Power metal has built a strong fanbase in Japan and South America, where bands like Brazil's [[Angra (band)|Angra]] and Argentina's [[Rata Blanca]] are popular. Closely related to power metal is [[progressive metal]], which adopts the complex compositional approach of bands like [[Rush (band)|Rush]] and [[King Crimson]]. This style emerged in the United States in the early and mid-1980s, with innovators such as [[Queensrÿche]], [[Fates Warning]], and [[Dream Theater]]. In 1990, Queensrÿche released the [[Music recording sales certification|triple-platinum]] ''[[Empire (album)|Empire]]''. The mix of the progressive and power metal sounds is typified by New Jersey's [[Symphony X]], whose guitarist [[Michael Romeo]] is among the most recognized of latter-day shredders.<ref name="Genre - Progressive Metal">"[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=77:2952 Genre - Progressive Metal]". [[All Music Guide]]. Retrieved on [[March 20]], [[2007]].</ref> =====Doom and gothic metal===== :''For more details on this topic, see [[Doom metal]] and [[Gothic metal]]'' [[Image:Sunn0))).gif|left|thumb|120px|[[Sunn O)))]] pioneered [[drone metal]] in the early 2000s.]]Emerging in the mid-1980s with such bands as California's [[Saint Vitus (band)|Saint Vitus]], Maryland's [[The Obsessed]], Chicago's [[Trouble (band)|Trouble]], and Sweden's [[Candlemass]], the doom metal movement rejected other metal styles' emphasis on speed, slowing its music to a crawl. Doom metal traces its roots back to early Black Sabbath albums, and incorporates lyrical themes and musical approaches indebted to Sabbath<ref>Christe (2003), p. 345</ref> and Sabbath contemporaries such as [[Blue Cheer]], [[Pentagram (band)|Pentagram]], and [[Black Widow (band)|Black Widow]].<ref name="DoomM">"[http://www.doom-metal.com/history.html The History of Doom metal]". doom-metal.com. Retrieved on [[March 21]], [[2007]].</ref> [[The Melvins]] have also been a significant influence on doom metal and a number of its subgenres.<ref>Begrand, Adrien. "[http://www.popmatters.com/columns/begrand/060215.shtml Blood and Thunder: The Profits of Doom]". [[February 15]], [[2006]]. PopMatters.com. Retrieved on [[April 8]], [[2007]].</ref> Doom emphasizes melody, melancholy tempos, and a sepulchral mood relative to many other varieties of metal.<ref name="NYT1">Wray, John. "[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/28/magazine/28artmetal.html?ei=5090&en=68f0bcd99797d7a3&ex=1306468800&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=all Heady Metal]". ''New York Times'', [[May 28]], [[2006]]. Retrieved on [[March 21]], [[2007]].</ref> {{Sound sample box align right|Music sample:}} {{listen|filename=Burning Witch Country Doctor.ogg|title=Country Doctor|description="Country Doctor" by [[Burning Witch]], taken from the album ''[[Crippled Lucifer]]'' (1998)| format=[[Ogg]]}}{{sample box end}}  The 1991 release of ''[[Forest of Equilibrium]]'', the debut album by UK band [[Cathedral (band)|Cathedral]], helped spark a new wave of doom metal. During the same period, the doom-death fusion style of British bands [[Paradise Lost (band)|Paradise Lost]], [[My Dying Bride]], and [[Anathema (band)|Anathema]] gave rise to European gothic metal, with its signature dual-vocalist arrangements, exemplified by Norway's [[Theatre of Tragedy]] and [[Tristania (band)|Tristania]]. New York's [[Type O Negative]] introduced an American take on the style. Led by the Swedish band [[Therion (band)|Therion]]'s incorporation of classical elements, gothic metal in turn spawned a [[symphonic metal]] movement including Australia's [[Virgin Black]], Liechtenstein's [[WeltenBrand]], and the Netherlands' [[Within Temptation]]. In the United States, [[sludge metal]], mixing doom and hardcore, emerged in the late 1980s—[[Eyehategod]] and [[Crowbar (US band)|Crowbar]] were leaders in a major Louisiana sludge scene. Early in the next decade, California's [[Kyuss]] and [[Sleep (band)|Sleep]], inspired by the earlier doom metal bands, spearheaded the rise of [[stoner metal]],<ref>Christe (2003), p. 347</ref> while Seattle's [[Earth (band)|Earth]] helped develop the [[drone music|drone metal]] subgenre.<ref>Jackowiak, Jason. "[http://www.splendidezine.com/review.html?reviewid=1125311580560974 Hex: Or Printing in the Infernal Method ]". Splendid Magazine, September, 2005. Retrieved on [[March 21]], [[2007]].</ref> The late 1990s saw the emergence of new bands such as the Los Angeles–based [[Goatsnake]], with a classic stoner/doom sound, and [[Sunn O)))]], which crosses lines between doom, drone, and [[dark ambient]] metal—the ''New York Times'' has compared their sound to an "Indian raga in the middle of an earthquake".<ref name="NYT1"/> In 2006, Atlanta's [[Mastodon (band)|Mastodon]], whose equally hard-to-define style mixes progressive and sludge, broke into the ''Billboard'' top 40 with ''[[Blood Mountain (album)|Blood Mountain]]''. === The alternative era and nu metal (1990s and 2000s) === :''For more details on this topic, see [[Alternative metal]] and [[Nu metal]]'' {{Sound sample box align right|Music samples:}} {{listen|filename=Biohazard Business.ogg|title=Business |description="Business" by Biohazard, from the album ''[[Urban Discipline]]'' (1992)| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{listen|filename=Trivium Pull Harder on the Strings of your Martyr.ogg|title=Pull Harder on the Strings of Your Martyr |description="Pull Harder on the Strings of Your Martyr" by [[Trivium]] (2005) | format=[[Ogg]]}}{{sample box end}}  The era of metal's mainstream dominance came to an end in the early 1990s with the emergence of [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]] and other [[Grunge music|grunge]] bands, signaling the popular breakthrough of [[alternative rock]].<ref>Christe (2003), pp. 304–6</ref><ref>Weinstein (1991), p. 278</ref> Grunge bands were influenced by the heavy metal sound, but rejected the excesses of the more popular metal bands. Glam metal fell out of favor thanks not only to the success of grunge,<ref>Christe (2003), p. 231</ref> but also because of the growing popularity of the more aggressive sound typified by Metallica and the post-thrash [[groove metal]] of [[Pantera]].<ref>Birchmeier, Jason. "[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:6qktk6rx9krw~T1 Pantera]". Allmusic.com. Retrieved on [[March 19]], [[2007]].</ref> A few new, unambiguously metal bands had commercial success during the first half of the decade—Pantera's ''[[Far Beyond Driven]]'' topped the ''Billboard'' chart in 1994—but, "In the dull eyes of the mainstream, metal was dead."<ref>Christe (2003), p. 305</ref> Some bands tried to adapt to the new musical landscape. Metallica revamped its image: the band members cut their hair and, in 1996, headlined the alternative musical festival [[Lollapalooza]] founded by Jane's Addiction singer [[Perry Farrell]]. While this prompted a backlash among some long-time fans,<ref>Christe (2003), p. 312</ref> Metallica remained one of the most successful bands in the world into the new century.<ref>Christe (2003), p. 322</ref> [[Image:AliceinChainsDirt.jpg|left|thumb|160px|[[Alice in Chains]]' ''[[Dirt (album)|Dirt]]'' (1992) was one of the biggest-selling albums identified with alternative metal.]] Like Jane's Addiction, many of the most popular early 1990s groups with roots in heavy metal fall under the umbrella term "alternative metal."<ref name="alternativemetal">{{cite web|title=Genre - Alternative Metal|author=|publisher=''[[All Music Guide]]''|date=|url=http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=77:2697|accessdate=2007-03-26}}</ref> The label was applied to a wide spectrum of acts that fused metal with different styles, not all associated with alternative rock. Acts labeled alternative metal included the Seattle grunge scene's [[Alice in Chains]], the [[noise rock]]-infused [[White Zombie (band)|White Zombie]], and groups drawing on multiple styles: [[Faith No More]] combined their alternative rock sound with punk, [[funk]], metal, and [[hip hop music|hip-hop]]; [[Primus (band)|Primus]] joined elements of funk, punk, [[thrash metal]], and [[experimental music]]. [[Tool (band)|Tool]] mixed metal and [[progressive rock]]; [[Ministry (band)|Ministry]] began incorporating metal into its [[industrial music|industrial sound]]; and [[Marilyn Manson (band)|Marilyn Manson]] went down a similar route, while also employing shock effects of the sort popularized by Alice Cooper. Alternative metal artists, though they did not represent a cohesive scene, were united by their willingness to experiment with the metal genre and their rejection of glam metal aesthetics (with White Zombie's and Marilyn Manson's stagecraft representing significant, if partial, exceptions).<ref name="alternativemetal" /> Alternative metal's mix of styles and sounds represented "the colorful results of metal opening up to face the outside world."<ref>Christe (2003), p. 224</ref> In the mid- and late 1990s came a new wave of U.S. metal groups inspired by the alternative metal bands and their mix of genres.<ref>Christe (2003), pp. 324–25</ref> Dubbed "nu metal," bands such as [[P.O.D.]], [[Korn]], [[Papa Roach]], [[Limp Bizkit]], [[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]], and [[Linkin Park]] incorporated elements ranging from hip-hop to death metal, proving "pancultural metal could pay off."<ref>Christe (2003), p. 329</ref> Nu metal gained mainstream success through heavy [[MTV]] rotation and Ozzy Osbourne's 1996 introduction of [[Ozzfest]], which led the media to talk of a resurgence of heavy metal.<ref>Christe (2003), p. 324</ref> That year, Korn released ''[[Life Is Peachy]]'', the first nu metal album to reach the top 10; two years later, the band's ''[[Follow the Leader (Korn album)|Follow the Leader]]'' hit number 1. In 1999, ''Billboard'' noted that there were more than 500 specialty metal radio shows in the U.S., nearly three times as many as ten years before.<ref>Christe (2003), p. 344</ref> While nu metal was widely popular early in the 2000s, traditional metal fans did not fully embrace the style.<ref>Christe (2003), p. 328</ref> By 2005, the nu metal movement was waning, though P.O.D. and Korn, as well as some bands with related styles, such as [[System of a Down]], remained successful.<ref>{{cite web | last = D'angelo | first = Joe | title=Nu Metal Meltdown | publisher = MTV.com | date=[[2003]] | url=http://www.mtv.com/bands/m/metal_meltdown/news_feature_030124/index.jhtml | accessdate=2007-03-28}}</ref> === Recent trends (mid-2000s) === In Europe, especially Germany and Scandinavia, metal continues to be very popular, with dedicated fans supporting already established acts and propelling newer ones like [[Edguy]] and [[HammerFall]] to superstar status. This commitment is evidenced by the open-air festivals held around the continent from late spring to summer, including several week-long events featuring dozens of bands and audiences of up to fifty thousand people. In addition to the long-running Ozzfest, major metal-oriented festivals include [[Wacken Open Air]], [[Summer Breeze Festival]], [[Bang Your Head!!!]], [[Metalcamp]], [[Gods of Metal]], [[Inferno Festival]], Rockwave, and [[Keep It True]]. [[Metalcore]], an originally American hybrid of thrash metal, [[melodic death metal]], and hardcore punk, emerged as a commercial force in 2002–3. It is rooted in the [[crossover thrash]] style developed by bands such as [[Suicidal Tendencies]] and [[Stormtroopers of Death]] in the mid-1980s.<ref>Christe (2003), p. 184</ref> Through the 1990s, metalcore was mostly an underground phenomenon, but by 2004 it had become popular enough that [[Killswitch Engage]]'s ''[[The End of Heartache]]'' and [[Shadows Fall]]'s ''[[The War Within (album)|The War Within]]'' debuted at numbers 21 and 20, respectively, on the ''Billboard'' album chart.<ref>{{cite web|title=Killswitch Engage|author=|publisher=''[[Roadrunner Records]]''|date=|url=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/artists/KillswitchEngage/bio.aspx/|accessdate=March 17, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Shadows Fall|author=|publisher=''[[Atlantic Records]]''|date=|url=http://www.atlanticrecords.com/shadowsfall/about/|accessdate=March 17, 2007}}</ref> [[Lamb of God (band)|Lamb of God]] broke into the top 10 with ''[[Sacrament (album)|Sacrament]]'' (2006). In recent years, metalcore bands have received prominent slots at Ozzfest and [[Download Festival]]. The early and mid-2000s also saw a traditional heavy metal revival spearheaded by bands such as Australia's [[Wolfmother]], England's [[Roadstar]], and Northern Ireland's [[The Answer (band)|The Answer]]. These bands, sometimes dubbed "retro-metal,"<ref>[http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/wolfmother Wolfmother]. ''RollingStone'', 2004. Retrieved on [[March 31]], [[2007]].</ref> have received significant music press attention. Wolfmother's [[Wolfmother (album)|self-titled 2005 debut album]] went to number 3 in Australia and was a both a UK and U.S. top 40 hit. ==See also== *[[Heavy metal fashion]] *[[Heavy metal slang]] *[[Heavy metal umlaut]] *[[Headbangers Ball]] *[[List of heavy metal bands]] *[[List of heavy metal genres]] *[[Timeline of heavy metal]] ==Sources== *[[Denis Arnold|Arnold, Denis]] (1983). "Consecutive Intervals," in ''[[The Oxford Companion to Music|The New Oxford Companion to Music]]'', Volume 1: A-J. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311316-3 *Blake, Andrew (1997). ''The Land Without Music: Music, Culture and Society in Twentieth-century Britain''. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-4299-2 *Charlton, Katherine (2003). ''Rock Music Styles: A History''. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-249555-3 *[[Ian Christe|Christe, Ian]] (2003). ''Sound of the Beast: The Complete Headbanging History of Heavy Metal''. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-380-81127-8 *[[Robert Christgau|Christgau, Robert]] (1981). "''[[Master of Reality]]'' (1971) [review]," in ''Christgau's Record Guide''. Ticknor & Fields. ISBN 0-89919-026-X *Cook, Nicholas, and Nicola Dibben (2001). "Musicological Approaches to Emotion," in ''Music and Emotion''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1926-3188-8 *Du Noyer, Paul (ed.) (2003). ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music''. Flame Tree. ISBN 1-9040-4170-1 *Kennedy, Michael (1985). ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1931-1333-3 *McMichael, Joe (2004). ''The Who Concert File''. Omnibus Press. ISBN 1-84449-009-2 *Moynihan, Michael, and Dirik Søderlind (1998). ''Lords of Chaos'' (2nd ed.). Feral House. ISBN 0-922915-94-6 *O'Neil, Robert M. (2001). ''The First Amendment and Civil Liability''. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34033-0 *Pareles, Jon, and Patricia Romanowski (eds.) (1983). "Grand Funk Railroad," in ''The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll'', pp. 224–25. Rolling Stone Press/Summit Books. ISBN 0-671-44071-3 *[[Stanley Sadie|Sadie, Stanley]] (1980). "Consecutive Fifth, Consecutive Octaves," in ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'' (1st ed.). MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-23111-2 *Schonbrun, Marc (2006). ''The Everything Guitar Chords Book''. Adams Media. ISBN 1-59337-529-8 *[[Robert Walser (musicologist)|Walser, Robert]] (1993). ''Running with the Devil: Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music''. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0-8195-6260-2 *Weinstein, Deena (1991). ''Heavy Metal: A Cultural Sociology''. Lexington. ISBN 0-669-21837-5. Revised edition: (2000). ''Heavy Metal: The Music and its Culture''. Da Capo. ISBN 0-306-80970-2 *Wilkerson, Mark Ian (2006). ''Amazing Journey: The Life of Pete Townshend'' (Louisville: Bad News Press). ISBN 1-4116-7700-5